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LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 

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UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



PROF. A. H. WELSH'S WORKS 

PUBLISHED BY JOHN C. BUCKBEE & COMPANY. 



LESSONS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

"It is, as to method, arrangement, and matter, a distinct advance 
beyond anything heretofore published. No book that I have seen 
is so well adapted to interest the student in the study of 'grammar,' 
to give him an intelligent knowledge of the subject, and to intro- 
duce and stimulate him to the further study of the English 
language." — Frotn N. Butler, Jr., Prof, of Latin, University of 
Illinois, and late Prof of English, University of Chicago. 



ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH. 

"It is giving great satisfaction." — H. W. Johnson, Prof, in 
Illinois College. 

"At a regular meeting of the Board of Kducation of this city, held 
August 15, 1887, ' Welsh's Essentials of English ' was adopted in our 
High Schools." — L- W. Day, Supt. of Public Instruction, Cleveland, 
Ohio. 

"It did more to awaken interest in English with a large class 
under my charge last fall than any other text I have ever used." — 
M. D. HoRNBECK, Prin. of Wesleyan Seminary, Danville, III. 

" I have a class of twenty just completing ' Welsh's Essentials of 
English,' and consider it the most satisfactory and successful class 
of any in my experience as a teacher." — W. H. Masters, Prof of 
English, Texas Wesleyan College. 



COMPLETE RHETORIC. 

" 'Welsh's Rhetoric' is the best book we have ever used. It 
■meets a long--felt want." — M. Louise Jones, Supt. of Schools, 
Charlotte, Mich. 

" ' Welsh's Rhetoric ' and ' Essentials of English ' have been used 
in our schools the past year with delight, and with great success." — 
Miss M. a. Brigham, Teacher in Brooklyn Heights Seminary, N. Y. 

"Allow me to express to you the gratification that I daily 
experience in the use of the works comprising Welsh's English 
Course. So far as my knowledge extends there is nothing else 
quite equal to them." — Miss C. J. Brown, Prin. of Reading 
Seminary, Pa. 



ENGLISH MASTERPIECE COURSE. 

A book for private study, for literary clubs, for the class-room, and for 
libraries of reference. 

' ' The work embodies an excellent idea well carried out. It fills 
admirably a lack that I have long felt in our English literature 
course. I expect to introduce the book next winter." — Wm. A. 
Houghton, F'rof of English Literature, University of the City of 
New York. 



LESSONS 



IN 



English Grammar 



By alfked h: welsh 

(^Ohio state University) 

AUTHOR OF DEVELOPMENT OF ENGLISH LITERATURE AND LANGUAGE, 

ENGLISH MASTERPIECE COURSE, ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH, 

COMPLETE RHETORIC, MAN AND HIS RELATIONS, 

ESSENTIALS OF GEOMETRY 






Between a mind of rules and a mind of principles there exists a difference 
such as that between a confused heap of materials and the same materials 
organized into a complete whole. — Spencer 




CHICAGO 

JOHN C. BUCKBEE AND COMPANY 

1888 



\ 



le. 






Copyright, 1887, 
Bt JOHN C. BUCKBEE & COMPANY. 



Press op 
KNIGHT & LEONARD CO. 



TO 

Mt Friend and Instructor, 

PROFESSOR JOHN WILLIAMS WHITE, 
OP HAEVAED UNIVERSITY, 

IN PLEASANT RECOLLECTION OF THE PBiriTFTTL HOURS 
"WE HAVE SPENT TOGETHER IN 

THE SPHERE OF LANGUAGE-STUDY. 



PREFACE. 



r I iHE design of this book is a thoroughly practical one. The 
-^ author believes that he has presented, simply and logically, 
the topics that relate directly to the facts of the language, and to 
the laws of its structure. 

The Sentence is taken as the fundamental unit, and all sepa- 
rate "words or combinations of words, as only parts of this whole. 
Words and phrases, taken by themselves, are only fractional; but, 
thrown into the form of a proposition, they assume an organic re- 
lation, and the value of each is judged by reference to its yoke- 
fellows. 

The Parts of Speech are defined inductively. Particular in- 
stances are held in the foreground as the basis; and, as far as 
possible, the concrete examples are allowed to tell their own tale. 
Generalization is thus mainly left as an effect of these on the 
mind of the pupil. 

Instead of being exhausted in all its relations, the subdivision 
of each Part of Speech is separately discussed before the peculiar 
process of Inflection is begun. 

Nor can the distinct and important operations placed under In- 
flection obtain the prominence they deserve unless exhibited apart. 
No canon of teaching is of greater consequence in conveying gram- 
matical information than the doing of one thing at a time. 

After the pupil has been duly drilled in classification, phrase, 
and clause equivalents, and in the nature and use of inflections; 



VI PREFACE. 

after he is firmly grounded in the cardinal principle that the qual- 
ity of words whereby they are distinguished into Parts of Speech is 
a habit, and not anything innate in the words themselves, he is 
ready to concentrate his attention intelligently and pleasurably on 
systematic, or syntactical, parsing. 

Analysis, after being anticipated by the extended treatment of 
the Parts of Speech, by the constant reference of them to their 
function in the sentence, is fully explained and exemplified in its 
place. Of the great yalue of this exercise, when disencumbered of 
useless technicalities, it is unnecessary to speak. 

Syntax, freed from all matters pertaining to the classification, 
inflection, and derivation of words, falls easily under the three 
heads of Concord, Government, and Order. Here, and in the suc- 
ceeding chapter on Synthesis and Variety, the pupil is practiced, 
not merely in arranging words according to their grammatical con- 
nection, but in combining them according to the logical relations 
of the thoughts to be expressed. 

The method throughout is one that directs attention forcibly to 
the meaning. It recognizes the fact that our language is not 
* grammarless ' ; and, though parting with so many inflections of the 
synthetic languages on which our grammars have been modeled, 
remains perfectly logical. This book, accordingly, develops the 
whole science of the language, from the thought — the reversal of 
which rule has done so much to cause the general failure in this 
branch of instruction. 

The execution of the plan aims at a mean between two extremes : 
that of the scientist, who, on the one hand, regarding grammar 
wholly as a science, overburdens us with scholastic discussions ; and 
that of the reactionist, the teacher of composition, on the other, 



PEEFACE. Vll 

who, ignoring the requirements of science, sacrifices exactness to 
making the study 'easy' and 'popular.' 

Fully aware that there is no finality in grammar-making, the 
author trusts to have made only a nearer approach to the day when 
one-half of the time that is at present consumed in the study of 
English grammar will bear twice the fruit that we now realize. 

No thorough English grammar can, to any very great extent, 
be original in either form or material without forfeiting all claims 
to public attention. Acknowledgments are especially due to the 
grammatical works of Dalgleish, Higginson, Morrell, Collier, Bain, 
Abbott, Morris, Swinton, Kellogg, Whitney, Laurie, and Tancock. 

In passing the book through the press, much valuable assistance 
has been given by Dr. W. G. Williams, of the Ohio Wesleyan 
University, whose sound judgment and long experience have fre- 
quently induced the author to modify parts or even to re-cast them. 

A. H. W. 

Columbus, Ohio, 

Novemher 24, 1887. 



OOl^TElNrTS. 



CHAPTER I. PAGE 

English — Growth and Relations 1 

CHAPTER II. 
Symbols — The Alphabet 5 

CHAPTER III. 
Unit of Speech — The Sentence . . . . , .11 

CHAPTER IV. 
Parts of Speech — Induction , . , . , . 16 

CHAPTER V. 
Parts of Speech — Transmutation 28 

CHAPTER VI. 
Parts of Speech — Phrase Equivalents .... 34 

CHAPTER VII. 
Parts of Speech — Clause Equivalents . . . .36 

CHAPTER VIII. 
Parts of Speech — Nouns Classified ..... 40 

CHAPTER IX. 
Parts of Speech — Pronouns Classified . . . .44 

CHAPTER X. 
Parts of Speech — Verbs Classified 51 

CHAPTER XL 
Parts of Speech — Adjectives Classified . . . .56 

CHAPTER XII. 
Parts of Speech — Adverbs Classified .... 61 

CHAPTER XIII. 
Parts of Speech — Prepositions Classified . . . .66 

CHAPTER XIV. 
Parts of Speech — Conjunctions Classified ... 69 

CHAPTER XV. 
Parts of Speech — Interjections Classified . , , .75 



COJSfTEiq^TS. 

CHAPTER XVI. PAGE 

Parts op Speech — Inflection of Nouns . ... 77 

CHAPTER XVII. 
Parts of Speech — Inflection of Pronouns . . , .90 

CHAPTER XVIII. . 
Parts of Speech — Inflection of Adjectives ... 96 

CHAPTER XIX. 
Parts of Speech — Inflection of Adverbs . . - , . 101 

CHAPTER XX. 
Parts of Speech — Inflection of Verbs . . . , 103 

CHAPTER XXI. 
Parts of Speech — How to Parse ...... 124 

CHAPTER XXII. 
Parts of Speech — Word-Making . . , . . . 131 

CHAPTER XXIII. 
The Sentence — Principal Elements ..... 143 

CHAPTER XXIV. 
The Sentence — Subordinate Elements .... 147 

CHAPTER XXV. 
The Sentence — Independent Elements .... 154 

CHAPTER XXVI. 
The Sentence — Classification . . . . c- . 155 

CHAPTER XXVII. 
The Sentence — Analysis . . . ... . . 165 

CHAPTER XXVIII. 
The Sentence — Government and Concord .... 175 

CHAPTER XXIX. 
The Sentence — Order ........ 191 

CHAPTER XXX. 
The Sentence — Synthesis and Variety .... 201 

CHAPTER XXXI. 
The Sentence — Capitalization ...... 214 

CHAPTER XXXII. 
The Sentence — Punctuation ..... gl9 



LESSONS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



OHAPTEE I. 

ENGLISH — GROWTH AND RELATIONS. 

Our language is called '^ English ^ from the word 
^nglisc (Angle or Engle), the name of a tribe of Ger- 
mans who, with other German tribes (Saxons and Jutes), 
settled in Britain about the middle of the fifth century. 
Their new home was called ^ngla-land, ^land of the 
Angles. ' 

The speech brought over by these people was unmixed, 
and was but little influenced by that of the old Celtic 
inhabitants of Britain, whom, for the most part, they 
drove out or destroyed. Some words, however (as 
''crag,'' ''crock, ^ ''cradle,^ ''mop,^ 'bonnet,^ ''ribbon^), were 
added from this source, just as we in America retain a few 
words (as 'canoe,' ^wigwam') borrowed from the Indians 
that once spread over this continent. 

A few words in general use (as 'scold,^ ^shy,^ ^ fellow,^ 
^cake^) were taken from the Northmen of Scandinavia, 
who, in the ninth century, obtained a footing in the North 
and East of England. 

In the eleventh century the English were overcome by 
the Normans, who spoke French. After a while the con- 
querors, being the smaller number, mingled with the con- 



2 



LESSOIs^S 11^ Eiq^GLISH GRAMMAK. 



quered, and, by the mixture of the two, their speech also 
came to be somewhat mixed . Thus very many of our words 
come from France. 

For nearly four hundred years before the coming of the 
Angles, the Eomans had occupied the central portion of 
the island, and the English settlers adopted the Latin 
(or Eoman) names for certain familiar objects: vallum (a 
wall); castra (a camp), changed to ceastre, then to Chester 
(man-chest er ) ; strata— street =stYeGt. 

The Eoman priests and monks who brought Christi- 
anity to our forefathers in the sixth century, introduced 
some Latin words, connected chiefly with the services of 
the Church. Thus: 



LATIN. 




OLD ENGLISH. 




MODERN ENGLISH 


episcopus 


= 


biscop 


= 


bishop 


monachus 


r= 


munuc 


= 


monk 


sanctus 


= 


sanct 


= 


saint 


diaconus 


= 


diacon 


= 


deacon 


presbyter 


= 


preast 


= 


priest 



French is really an offshoot from Latin, and so the 
Norman Conquest Was the means of adding to English 
another very considerable Latin element, much altered 
from the original form, as ^reason' (Lat. ratio, Fr. raison). 
Usually, words that have come to us directly from the Latin 
have not undergone so much change in spelling: 



LATIN. 


COMING DIRECTLY 
INTO ENGLISH. 


INDIRECTLY THROUGH 
NORMAN FRENCH. 


captivum 

factum 

hospitale 

securum 

separare 


captive 

fact 

hospital 

secure 

separate 


caitiff 

feat 

hotel 

sure 

sever 



Ei^^GLISH — GKOWTH AND RELATIOi^^S. 3 

Through the Kevival of Learning in the sixteenth cen- 
tury^ English writers added to the language very many 
Latin words with very little change of form. 

We have also borrowed many scientific and philosophi- 
cal words from the Greek, as ''music/ ^botany'; and mis- 
cellaneous terms from numerous other languages, as ^boom/ 
'yacht/ which are Dutch; '^ calico/ which is Hindoo; ' lilac,^ 
which is Persian; 'satin/ which is Chinese; and so on. 

Thus we see that the English language, as it now ex- 
ists, is made up from many tongues. Yet the Anglo-Saxon 
is the basis, furnishing all our grammar (ways of putting 
words together), and the majority, perhaps three-quarters, 
of words in daily use. 

Saxon words are connected with the feelings of the 
great mass of the people, with the common arts and modes 
of life, the familiar sights and sounds of earth and sky. 
Thus, 'father,' 'mother,' 'husband,' 'wife,' 'friend,' 
'home,' 'cradle,' 'hunger,' 'sorrow,' 'anger,' 'wonder,' 
'bitter,' 'tear,' 'smile,' 'light,' 'heat,' 'cold,' 'rain,' 
'snow,' 'storm,' 'fly,' 'swim,' 'creep,' 'crawl,' 'sight,' 
'touch,' 'taste,' 'body,' 'head,' 'ear,' 'eye,' 'tongue,' 
'lip,' 'chin,' and others of like import, — are Saxon. 

We have a very long series of English works, written at 
different periods, and going back beyond the time of King 
Alfred, who died in 891. From these writings we see 
how English has changed from time to time; some words 
passing out of use, others coming into use; some changing 
their meaning, almost all changing their pronunciation. 
Turn, for example, to the sixth and seventh verses of the 
first chapter of St. Mark, and compare what you see there 
with what follows: 



LESSONS 11^ ENGLISH GRAMMAE. 



A. D. 1,000. 


A. D. 1150. 


A. D. 1380. 


And lohannes waes ge- 


And lohannes wses ge- 


And John was clothid 


scryed 


scryd 


1 


mid oluendes hser um 


mid olfendes haere 


with heeris of cameli!*, 


& f ellen gyrdel 


& f ellen gyrdel 


and a girdil of skyu 


wees ymbe his lend- 


waes embe his lend- 


abowte his leendis ; 


enu. 


ene 




& gserstapan & wudu 


& garstapeu & wude 


and he eet locustus, 


hunighe set. 


hunig he set. 


and hony of the wode, 


& he bodude & cwseth. 


& he bodede & cwseth. 


and prechide, seyinge 


strengra cymth sefter 


strengre kymth sefter 


A strengere than I 


me 


me. 


schal come aftir me 


thses ne eom ic wyrthe 


thas ne sem ich wurthe 


of whom I knelinge 


that ic his sceona 


that ic his scone 


am not worthi for to 


thwanga 


thwange 


undo 


bugende uncnytte 


bugende un-cnette 


the thong of his 
schoon 



Because the English language was brought from Ger- 
many, it is still very much like the languages of Germany, 
and is accordingly often called a Germanic language. . You 
may see this likeness by comparing, for instance, our 
' house ' and ' thou hast ' with the German haus and du 
hast. By extending this comparison, scholars have shown 
that most of the languages in Europe are related to each 
other by having descended from a common parent, the 
Aryan, whose ancient abode was somewhere in Asia. 

To report and describe in an orderly way the facts of a 
language, to collect and set forth the manner in which it is 
used by people of the best education, is the true aim of a 
^grammar/ 



CHAPTEE II. 



SYMBOLS — THE ALPHABET, 



The examination of a word as we hear it, shows it to 
consist of one or more sounds. These sounds are repre- 
sented to the eye by written signs called letters. 

The air breathed out from the lungs strikes with vary- 
ing force against two flat muscles stretched across the 
larynx, and causes them to vibrate. This vibrating makes 
sound, or voice. 

The articulating organs, throat, tongue, teeth, palate, 
lips, and nose, serve to modify the breath as it issues from 
the windpipe. 

If the breath comes out through the- mouth held well 
open, modified but not interrupted or stopped by the actual 
contact of any of these organs, there is produced a class of 
sounds called vo"wels. 

To express the many varieties of these, we have only 
the five signs «, e, i, o, u, each of which has, in conse- 
quence, several values: 



in fat. 

in fate. 

in pair, ware, 

in father. 

in all. 

in wander. 

in met. 

in meet. 



i in knit. 
1 in fine. 
6 in not. 
o in note. 
do in fool, 
ob in good. 
ii in nut. 
u. in tube. 



6 LESSOKS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR* 

The union of two vowels, each of which is distinctly 
heard, is called a diphthong, as in 'coil/ 'cloud/ 'teud/ 

The union of two letters, only one of which is pro- 
nounced, or both of which stand for a single sound, is called 
a digraph: ' -pctm/ 'heat/ 'freight/ ' gtiard/ 'guise/ 
'ghost/ 'pJiial.' 

The union of three letters to express a single sound is 
called a trigraph, as lieti (=lu). 

A letter or combination that does duty for another 
letter or combination, is conveniently called a substi- 
tute : 'hime' (=feum.—ie-oo'm), 'heau' (=:bo), heautj 
(=he-tdj). 

When the stream of breath is wholly or partially stop- 
ped by contact with one or other of the organs of speech, 
we have consonants ; so named because they can not be 
perfectly uttered without the aid of a vowel. Thus the 
sound denoted by the sign b is uttered as bee, m as em, h 
as hay (=:ka), etc. 

Stopped sounds are called mutes, or checks, as g, h, 
d, t, b, p. Sounds that may be prolonged are called 
spirants, as h, tli, f, s, z. Some (as h and d) are more 
easily pronounced than others (as p and /); hence the 
former are said to be soft or flat, and the latter hard or 
sharp. 

Again, according to the organ chiefly concerned in 
their production, consonants are : labials or lip-sounds, 
p, b, f, v; dentals or teeth-sounds, d, t, tli; gutturals 
or throat-sounds, h, g; nasals, passing through the nose, 
7n, n, ng; palatals, j, y; r and / are called trills ; k, I, m, 



SYMBOLS — THE ALPHABET. 7 

Uy and 7ig in ' sing ' are often called liquids, because they 
flow on continuously. 

Consonants, singly or in union, as in the case of vowels, 
frequently occur as substitutes: g for j, rage; c for z, 
*■ sacrifice '; f for v^of; s or ti for sh, ' 5ugar ' and mo^f^on; 
eto for u, ^neiu'; y for % ^th^me^ and ' happy. "* 



MUTES. 


SPIRANTS. 




Flat. 


Sharii. 


Nasal. 


Flat. 


Sharp. 


Trilled. 


Gutturals 


G 
hard 


K 


NG 


. . . 


H 


• • 


Palatals 


J 


Ch 
soft 


• • 


. . . 


Y 


• • 


Palatal ) 
Sibilants ) 


• • 


• • 


• • 


Zh 
(azure.) 


Sh 
(sure) 


R 


Dental \ 

Sibilants f 


• • 


• • 


• • 


Z 

(prize) 


S 
(mouse) 


L 


Dentals 


D 


T 


N 


Th 
(bathe) 


Th 
(bath) 


• • 


Labials 


B 


P 


M 


V 

W (witch) 


P 

Wh (which) 


• • 



Another Classification. 



Mutes — Those which, at the end of a 
syllable, completely stop the 
vowel-sound. 



b, d, c (hard), g (hard), 
k, p, t. 



Half- Mutes — Those through which 
the vowel-sound can be im- 
perfectly prolonged. 



/, c(soft),^(soft),y,5, v,^. 



8 



LESSONS IIS" E^-GLISH GRAMMAK. 



Liquids — Those which combine softly 
and easily with the mutes. 
They are also called semi- 
vowels, from the extent to 
which the voice can escape 
through them. 

Aspirate or Breathing — .... 
Compound Mutes — ...... 



I, m, n, r. 



n. 



X {=hs) ; q, always attended 
by u, as in queen, and, 
with u, = Tew. 



The mutes are related in pairs: 



b 
d 

g (hard) 
z 

V 



A frequent and convenient division of sounds is into (1) 
vocals, made by the voice, and represented by vowels; 
(2) aspirates, made by the breath; and (3) sub-vocals, 
made by the voice and breath. (2) and (3) are repre- 
sented by consonants. 

A complete list of the written signs of a language is its 
alphabet. This word is derived from Alpha, Beta, the 
names of the first two letters of the Greek alphabet. 

In a perfect alphabet there would be as many letters as 
there are sounds in the language. Our forty-three sounds 
ought to be represented by forty-three symbols. Evi- 
dently, then, our alphabet is very imperfect: 

(1) It consists of only twenty-six letters, three of which, 
c, q, X, are not needed, since c may be represented by s or 



SYMBOLS — THE ALPHABET. 9 

Tc (as in ^certain/ *^card '), q by h, qu by hiu (^'uick), x by 
hs {iox). We have really, therefore, only twenty-three 
useful letters. 

(2) One letter or combination may stand for more than 
one sound, as 5 in ' seas ' ; g in ' girl " and *" gin '; « in '^ ale/ 
'add/ *^ share/ 'far^; ougli in ''bough/ '^ borough/ ^ cough/ 
'through.^ 

(3) The same sound is represented by different signs; 
as e in 'end/ 'many^ (meny), 'said^ (sed), 'friend^ 
(frend), and k in 'keep/ 'cause/ 'chorus.' 

(4) There are many silent letters: 'throu^/^-/ 'horough/ 

To remedy the defects of the alphabet — 

(1) It is supplemented by a number of double letters, 
or digraphs, which are as inconsistently employed as the 
simple characters themselves, as 'j^/^antom,' 'molign,' 
^vou-gh.' 

(2) A final e is used to indicate a long vowel, as 'bite.'' 
The preceding vowel, however, is not seldom short, as 
'live,' 'give.' 

(3) A consonant is doubled to indicate a short vowel, 
as 'folly,' 'hotter.' 

Under their smallest combinations, the alphabetic 
elements produce syllables; syllables produce words — 
monosyllabic (one syllable), dissyllabic (two syllables), 
trisyllabic (three), polysyllabic (many). 

To give in their order the elementary sounds of a word 
is to spell it phonetically. The correct pronunciation of 
words (that is, according to the usage of the best speakers) 
is Orthoepy ; correct writing of them Orthography. 



10 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GKAMMAR. 

EXEKCISES. 

1. Give the first sound of each of these words: 

ant, ale, ox, oak, eye, oil, hour. 

2. Give the vocals heard in — 

say, eight, keg, owe, myth, do, eel. 

3. Give the first sound in each of the following: 

keg, fan, bud, dog, gun, log, jug, one, unit. 

4. Illustrate by the use of h and t the difference between the sounds 

of letters and their names. 

5. Spell the following phonetically: 

pass, stabs, hacked, bat, sigh, isle, weigh, way, write, right, 
rite, laugh, phlegm, ewe, Chaucer, Shakespeare, Byron. 

6. What are vowels? Name them. What are consonants? Give 

the several classifications of the latter. 

7. Are iv and y vowels or consonants in the following? 

body, wagon, now, wonder, young, myrtle. 

8. Write four words containing diphthongs. 

9. Pick out the digraphs and substitutes in these words : 

ceiling, new, tour, buy. Christian, alien, ocean, England, 
busy, women, been, feint, Stephen, his, fusion, question. 

10. In the following, how many letters are liquids? Sound the 

vowels, give the class and sub-class of consonants : 
God made the country and man made the town. 
What wonder then that health and virtue, gifts 
That can alone make sweet the bitter draught 
That life holds out to all, should most abound 
And least be threatened in the fields and groves? 
Possess ye, therefore, ye who, borne about 
In chariots and sedans, know no fatigue 
But that of idleness, and taste no scenes 
But such as art contrives, possess ye still 
Your elements ; there only can ye shine. 

11. In what respects is the English alphabet imperfect? 



OHAPTEE III. 

UNIT OF EXPRESSION— THE SENTENCE. 

Should you hear some person speak only the words 
'stars/ ^leaves/ 'iron/ you would naturally ask 'Well, 
what about them? ' 

Nor would you be satisfied, should you hear merely 
such expressions 'as 'shine/ 'fall/ 'is useful/ 'room/ 'car- 
pet/ ^my/ 'is/ 'the/ 'in/ 'dusty/ 'A^ery/ The natural 
question would be. What falls? What shines? etc. N^either 
the single words nor the groups tell any thing. 

If now these words be fitted together in a certain way, 
no explanation will be required: 

Stars shine. 

Leaves fall. 

Iron is useful. 

The carpet in my room is very dusty. 

The meaning is here complete: something has been said 
or stated — a thought has been expressed. 

To say or tell something, to express a thought, is to 
make a Sentence. 

We can have a distinct and full meaning in two words; as 

Peter repented. 
Dogs fight. 
Diamonds sparkle. 
11 



12 LESSOKS m ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Such are called naked sentences. They give the 
words necessary to a meaning, and all other words than 
these are enlargements; as, * Peter who hetrayed Ms master 
repented hitterly.' 

A sentence used to tell or declare something, as 
above, is called declarative. But a thought may be ex- 
pressed in the form of a question, as, ^Are you sure?^ and 
it is then said to be interrogative; or in the form of a 
command or request, as, ^Obey your parents,^ and it is 
then said to be imperative ; or in the form of an exclama- 
tion, as, ^ How beautifully the sun shines ! ' and it is then 
said to be exclamative. 

By a slight change, a sentence that expresses a state- 
ment may be made to express a command, a question, or 
an exclamation: 

The tempest rages. 
Let the tempest rage. 
Does the tempest rage? 
How the tempest rages ! 

Let it be carefully noted that every sentence is made up 
of two parts: (1) What is spoken about, and (2) what is 
said. The former is the subject; the latter, the predi- 
cate. 

The subject without any enlargements is called the bare 
subject; and the predicate without any enlargements, the 
bare predicate. Thus: 



Rain 

The coast 

A small lealc 

The tempest of wind and rain 

They that have the greatest gifts 



falls. 

is clear. 

will sink a great ship. 

rages frightfully. 

live most humbly. 



Ul^IT OF EXPKESSION — THE SEKTEKCE. 13 

The subject of a commanding sentence is ' thou/ * you/ 
or ^ye/ usually not spoken or written, but understood; as 
'Follow [tliou] me/ *^Be [ye] also perfect/ In a question- 
ing sentence — 'Did he come?^ 'Is the bird singing?^ — 
ask 'Did ivlio come?^ 'Is ivliat singing?" Similarly in 
sentences of the stating form, like the following, for 
example, it may be helpful to ask, ^Who or what suc- 
ceeded ? ' ' What is certain ? " etc. : 

Emily succeeded. 

She succeeded. 

Her attempt to gather lilies succeeded. 

That she succeeded is certain. 



EXERCISES. 


1, Predicate something of — 




Flowers 


Water 


Children 


Clouds 


Bees 


Grass 


To see — — 


Money 


That he will die 


He 


2. Fill in the blanks with suitable 


subjects: 


am sure. 


will go? 


withers. 


burns. 


will have gone. 


was crushed. 


broke his arm. 


is progressing. 


How terrible is ! 


might have been saved. 



3. Give your reason for thinking that each of the following expres- 
sions is or is not a sentence. Make sentences, if possible, of 
such as are not : 

(1) A girl in the field. 

(2) Always going the wrong way. 

(3) Come. 



14 LESSOKS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

(4) A rolling stone gathers no moss. 

(5) Open doors. 

(6) Doors open. 

(7) Fiddle. 

(8) Cattle graze. 

(9) Birds singing. 

(10) The man driving the oxen. 

(11) The horns of the oxen tipped with brass knobs. 

(12) What a beautiful book you have ! 

(13) That the earth is a sphere is easily proved. 

(14) Twice ten is twenty. 

(15) The week between Christmas and New Year's. 

4. Read the subject and predicate of each of these sentences: 

(1) See that squirrel on the fence. 

(2) The clock is striking twelve. 

(3) Does Wilgus come home at midnight? 

(4) Can you guess how much Harry weighs? 

(5) Is gold a mineral? 

(6) Five large, ripe, mellow apples were picked. 

(7) The greater portion of South America lies between the 

tropics. 

(8) The golden lines of sunset glow. 

(9) On came the water. 

(10) Nothing but the whole world could satisfy him. 

5. Fill in blanks so as to express questions: 

in France ? 

to write exercises? 

When was ? 

Which ? 

Does ? 

Are ? 

Is it pleasant to ? 



6. Compose two interrogative and two exclamative sentences begin- 
ning with ' how ' and ' what.' 



UNIT OF EXPRESSION — THE SENTENCE. 15 

7. Arrange these words so that each group shall express a thought ; 
and tell whether the resulting sentence declares, asks, exclaims, 
or commands something : 

him, a, with, to dine, invited, a stork, once, fox. 

wanted, only, trick, a, stork, the, on, play, to, fellow, cruel, the. 

hay, the, shines, make, while, sun. 

party, at, a, wish, honor, we, the, company, of, your. 

mountains, the, high, are, how. 

saw, do, think the, what, stork, you. 



CHAPTEE IV. 

PARTS OF SPEECH — INDUCTION. 

Let us now examine some such sentence as this : 

' The thirsty crow immediately pushed her bill eagerly into the 
jug ; but, alas ! she got no water, because the neck of the vessel was 
so narrow. ' 

If we ask what each word tells us, we shall see that 
some words have like uses, and some have unlike. Thus, 
'crow/ ^ bill/ 'jug/ * water/ ''neck/ and '^ vessel ^ tell us 
the names of things. But 'pushed/ '^got/ and ' was^ are 
of quite another kind — they tell us what the crow did, or 
assert something about the neck of the vessel. ' The/ 
'thirsty/ 'no/ and 'narrow' are words of yet another 
kind — they point out things, tell us of what sort they 
are. Compare 'the thirsty crow ' with 'thirsty crow/ ^any 
thirsty crow/ ' that thirsty crow,^ etc.; and ' thirsty crow^ 
with 'the crow/ 'the clever crow/ 'the bad crow/ etc. 
Again, the words 'immediately,' 'eagerly,^ 'so,' are unlike 
the others — they tell us when, hoiv, or how much. 'Her' 
and 'she' stand for names. 'Into,' 'of,' 'but,^ and 
' because ' joi^i parts, with this difference, — that the latter 
two join statements. 'Alas ' is thrown in, to express feel- 
ing, like a tone, a look, a gesture, or a cry in conversation. 

A great many words in every language are used in the 
same way as 'crow,' and 'neck/ — to name things. A 
great many are used in the same way as ' got ' and ' was ' — 

16 



PARTS OF SPEECH — INDUCTIOl^^. 17 

to assert something. Consequently, just as from certain 
likenesses we group together certain flowers, and call them 
roses, and from other likenesses group together other 
flowers, and call them lilies, so, from similarities in use, 
we group words into classes, giving to each a name. 

Thus, finding that many words name things — things 
of which we can think and speak — we place them in one 
class, and call them NoTins.^ 

Finding that many words tell us what things do or have 
done to them (^ John was struck^), or assert that they are 
or exist, we place them in another class and call them 
Verbs. They assert action, being, or state of being. 
Compare ' The dog runs ' with ^ The dog stands,'' ' The 
dog sleeps,^ ^ The dog is dying,^ *" The dog is killed.^ 

Not all words, however, that express action or condi- 
tion are verbs. Thus: 

(1) Skating is a winter sport. 

(2) The sleeping girl was awakened. 

(3) A screaming eagle caught a flying hawk. 

In (1) an action is named; in (2) and (3) something is 
described. To be a verb, a word must assert or declare — 
must go with the name of something, to state, or help state, 
something about it. 

The term ' verb ' (from Latin verhum) means word, and 
this part of speech, is so called because it is the word, the 
essential part of the predicate, the word that gives life to a 
sentence. No group of words can be a sentence unless one 
of the words is a verb; that is, unless one of the words 
asserts or tells. 

^ From the Latin nomen, a name. 



18 LESSONS IlSr Ei^GLISH GEAMMAE. 

A word that expresses action, being, or state, but does 
not assert, is a verbal. 

As the examples have shown, two or more words may 
be combined in a sentence to do the work of a verb: 

He recites his lesson. 

He is reciting his lesson. 

He has heen reciti7ig his lesson. 

He should have been reciting his lesson. 

He was laughed at. 

A combination of words (not including a subject and 
predicate) used to do the work of one word, is called a 
phrase. A phrase that does the work of a verb is a verb- 
phrase. 

We find further that some words (like ' her ' and ' she '), 
while they do not precisely name things, are yet a kind of 
substitute for the ordinary names. These are put into a 
third class, and called Pronoiins.i They distinguish ob- 
jects of thought in their relation to the speaker, denote an 
unknown object of inquiry, or prevent awkward repetition: 

(1) He, not /, will go. 

(2) Who is that? 

(3) Once upon a time a conceited frog saw a fine large cow in a 

green meadow. So the frog [he] said to his companions, 
' Why should not the frogs [we] make the frogs [our- 
selves] as large as that beautiful animal ? ' 

While the noun, the pronoun, and the verb are the 
essentials, they seldom make the whole of a sentence. We 
find that many words accompany them, and lean on them as 
on supports; as, 'the,' 'golden,' and 'brightly,' in 'The 

* From the Latin pronomen, for a noun. 



PARTS OF SPEECH — INDUCTION. 19 

golden sun shines brightly/ To extend the illustration, if 
we say simply apples, we mean apples in general, and the 
word represents all apples. If, however, we say three, 
some, or many apples, the word is restricted in respect to 
the number denoted — it includes fewer objects than be- 
fore. If we say the, this, or that apple, the word is re- 
stricted not only to one object but to q> particular one. If 
we say a large apple, the word is restricted in respect to the 
size, small apples being excluded. If we say a large red 
apple, the word is further restricted in respect to color, 
apples of any other color or size being excluded. Words 
that thus throw their force upon a noun or its equivalent, 
are called Adjectives. i 

Let it be remembered, in passing, that to restrict the 
scope or meaning of a word in this manner is to modify it; 
and every such restricting word, whatever it may throw its 
force upon, is called a modifier. 

In 'He steps,^ the verb may be variously applied; but 
if it be said ^He siQ^^ proudly ' (not softly or high or rapidly 
or slowly), these possible applications are limited to one — 
that is, the meaning is restricted or modified. Similarly 
in 'The lark soars aloft [where?], and altuays [when?], 
sings sweetly [how?]."* Words thus used to mark the when, 
where, or how of verbs^ are called Adverbs. 2 

We observe, also, that most adverbs may modify adjec- 
tives and other adverbs; as 'very good^ [how good?], 'good 
to-day' [when?], 'good here' [where?], 'good to gain 
heaven ' [why ?] . Hence an adverb is a word used to mark 

*From Latin ad, to, a,ndjacere, to throw, = added to. 
= From the Latin ad, to, and vet'bum, = added to a verb, 



20 lesso:n^s in English grammar. 

the when, lohere, liow, or ivliy of verbs, adjectives, or other 
adverbs. 

Were you asked where you are living, or where your 
pencil is, the adverb liere or tliere would give hardly suffi- 
cient answer. Instead, you might reply : '■ My home is in 
Boston^; '^We have Just moved into New Yo^k from the 
country'; ''My pencil is in [on, under, beside'] the box.^ 
That is, there are words which express neither things (like 
nouns), nor activities (like verbs), nor qualities or limita- 
tions (like adjectives and adverbs), but only their relations. 
Such are called Prepositions, i Hence, a preposition is a 
word used to connect a noun (or pronoun) — 

(1) With another noun or pronoun; as 'the day &e/ore yester- 

day.' 

(2) With an adjective; as 'fond of books.' 

(3) With a verb ; as ' speak to me. ' 

(4) With an adverb; as ' never till to-day.' 

Thus, prepositions connect ivords. The noun or pro- 
noun following the preposition is called the object. A 
preposition and its object is called an adjunct, or preposi- 
tional phrase. 

Adjuncts, as we shall have further occasion to remark, 
are modifiers, being equivalent to adjectives or to adverbs, 
according to the part of speech on which they throw their 
force. Thus, ''before yesterday,' since it restricts the noun 
^day,' is an adjective; ^of books,' since it restricts the ad- 
jective "fond,' is an adverb; "to me,' since it restricts the 
verb ' speak ' — that is, limits its possible meanings — is an 
adverb; "till to-day' is an adverb restricting the adverb 
'never.' 

'^XiBiiviprce, before, aud ponere, to place; indicating the usual position. 



PAKTS OF SPEECH — INDUCTION". 21 

If we wish to connect sentences, we must use still 
another kind of words. We may say: 

I was punished. I was late. 

The sun rose. The ship sailed. 

You will be poor. You are idle. 

I like Harry. Harry likes me. 

I like Harry. Harry dislikes me. 

Much better^ however : 

I was punished because I was late. 
When the sun rose, the ship sailed = 
The ship sailed when the sun rosSi 
You will be poor, ifjou are idle. 

( and ) 

I like Harry ■< since V Harry likes me. 

( therefore ) 

(hut ) 

I like Harry < though >■ Harry dislikes me. 

( whereas ) 

Such words are called Conjunctions.! Their principal 
and proper use, as in the examples, is to join statements, 
though some of the most common (especially ^and/ 'or/ 
'but^) are also used to join words: 

The cat and dog fought. 

He was poor but honest. 

She writes well though slowly. 

Do you live in Boston or in Chicago? 

A conjunction, therefore, is a word used, primarily, to 
connect sentences, or, secondarily, words employed in the 
same way in the sentence. If the pupil is doubtful whether 
a given word is a preposition or a conjunction, let him con- 

1 Latin con, with, and jungere, to join. 



22 LESSONS IK ENGLISH GEAMMAR. 

sider whether it connects or can connect two statements. 
However, it should not be forgotten that the same word 
may be one and the other in different uses. Thus, ^He 
came defore me ' [preposition] ; ' he came before I returned ' 
[conjunction]. Also, ^The battle was against him, before 
and behind ' [adverb] . 

Words thrown into a sentence to express feeling (^oh!^ 
^hark!' 'alas!' 'fie!') are called Interjections. This 
name (Latin inter, into, and jacere, to throw) implies that, 
though it is convenient to put them into a class, they are 
unimportant to the make-up of sentences — can be omitted 
without changing the sense. 

Thus our many thousands of words are made to fall by 
similarities of use into eight classes. These, since words 
can not separately make a sentence, being thus merely 
fragments of a whole, are known as the eight Parts of 
Speech. 1 They form two general divisions; 

Principal — noun, pronoun, verh. 

( Modifiers — adjective, adverb. 
Accessory ■< Connectives — preposition, conjunction. 
( Emotion-words — interjection. 

In telling the parts of speech, proceed in the following 
manner: 

A greedy, quarrelsome terrier, noticing that a butcher was looking 
in another direction, slipped into the shop and stole a beefsteak. 
Before he ate it, he thought that he would go to his kennel. 

' Sometimes the little words ' a ' or ' an ' and ' the,' called the Articles, and 
verbals like 'walking,' 'walked,' 'giving,' 'given,' called Participles, are 
reckoned separate parts of speech, but not properly, since their uses are 
always those either of nouns or of adjectives. 



PAETS OF SPEECH — Iiq^DUCTIO:N". 



23 



WORD. 


MODIPIES WHAT? 


TELLS WHAT? 


IS WHAT? 


A 


terrier 


points out 


adjective 


greedy, 
quarrelsome J 


terrier 


of what sort 


adjective 


terrier 




the name of 
what 'slipped' 


noun 

(bare subject of 

sentence) 




noticing 


terrier 


expresses ac- 
tion, but does 
not assert 


adjective 
(verbal) 


that 




joins a statement 
to 'noticing' 


conjunction 


a 


butcher 


points out 


adjective 


butcher 




ivho ' was look- 
ing' 


noun 
(bare subject of 
'was looking') 




was looking 




asserts 


verb 
(verb-phrase) 




in 




joins ' direction ' 
to ' was looking ' 


preposition 




another 


direction 


points out 


adjective 


direction 
slipped 


- 


name 

what the terrier 
did 


noun 

verb 
(bare predicate) 






into 




joins 'shop' to 
' slipped ' 


preposition 


the 


shop 


points out 


adjective 


into the shop 


slipped 


where 


adverb-phrase 


and 




joins 'slipped' 
and ' stole ' (may 
join statements) 


conjunction 




etc. 


etc. 


etc. 


etc. 



24 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



EXERCISES. 

1. Point out the action words, telling which are verbs, which are 

verbals, and which of the former are verb-phrases : 

Now to do this, he was obliged to pass a stream flowing not 
far off. Here, walking across a narrow plank that bridged 
the stream, he saw his own shadow in the water. Thinking 
[that] it was another dog with another beef -steak, he stopped. 
'Give it to me,' he snarled, without opening his mouth: for 
he feared that his beef-steak might drop. But the other dog 
only seemed to snarl again. Irritated at this, the terrier 
howled still louder, still keeping his mouth shut: 'If you 
do not give it to me, I will come for it.' The dog in the 
water made no answer, but only seemed to grow more angry. 

* Will you give it to me? or do you mean to fight? If you 
do, come on, ' said the greedy dog, now losing all patience as 
he saw the other dog preparing to spring upon him. ' When 
I once show my teeth, you will repent it.' On receiving no 
answer, the terrier opened his mouth and leaped into the 
stream, dropping his beef-steak, which was rapidly carried 
down by the current. Thus the greedy beast, led by his 
greediness, and trying to gain what did not belong to him, 
lost what he already had. If he had been content with what 
he had, he might have eaten his beef-steak in peace. 

2. Point out the nouns in — 

Some thoughtless boys were playing with stones near a pond. 
During their play they noticed a family of frogs and began 
to pelt them, not from cruelty, for they were not cruel, but 
from thoughtlessness. Very soon they hit one of the frogs, 
and all the family at once dived down in a fright beneath 
the surface of the water, ' This is fine fun, ' said the boys, 

* we will wait till they come up again, and then we will give 
them a good pelting.' Just then the mother of the frogs 
popped up her head, croaking so pitifully that the boys held 
their hands and did not pelt her. 'Young gentlemen,' said 
she, 'if you are really gentle, you will not continue your 



PARTS OF SPEECH — IKDUCTIOK. 25 

sport. How would you like it if a giant killed your mother 
or sister for sport? But that is wnat you have done to 
me ; you have killed my youngest daughter, and maimed my 
two sons for life. What is sport to you is death to us.' 

3. Use pronouns to avoid awkward repetition here: 

Once an ass dressed an ass in the skin of a lion. On seeing 
the ass thus disguised, all the beasts of the forest fled away 
in fear, thinking the ass to be a lion, and fearing that the 
ass would devour the beasts. The fox alone did not run 
away, but hid the fox behind a tree, to note what went on. 
When the ass thought the ass was alone, the ass could not 
help braying with delight to see the beasts all so frightened 
at the ass. On this the sly fox stepped from behind the tree 
and said to the ass, ' Now the fox has [have] found the ass 
out. If the ass had only kept quiet, every one would have 
taken the ass for a lion. ' 

4. For what names do the pronouns in the following stand? 

The owl and the eagle struck up a friendship. ' How shall I 
know your young ones?' said the eagle. ' I have no fear that 
you will attack mine, but I wish to spare yours,' ' My chil- 
dren,' replied the owl, 'are the most beautiful birds in the 
forest; you will see none equal to them anywhere. Their 
plumage is as white as snow, their voice is sweeter than that 
of a nightingale, their eyes like those of a gazelle.' 'You 
astonish me,' replied the eagle; '1 have met many birds in 
my time, some very beautiful, but never any equal to these. 
However, I shall easily know them when I meet them. Now 
I will wish you good day.' Away flew the eagle, and came 
in a few moments to the nest of the owl. When he spied the 
ugly little nestlings, he said ' These at least can not be the 
children of my friend, so I will have them for my dinner.' 
Just when he was on the point of killing them, the owl flew 
down screaming with terror and anger. The eagle stopped 
in time, and explained that he had not known them. * But,' 
added he, ' this is your fault, not mine. You ought not to 
think that your children will seem to others the same as they 
seem to you.' 



26 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GKAMMAR. 

5. Write or repeat what the italicized parts tell you ; then the class 

of each : 
^Why are you spoiling my water?' said the wolf savagely to 
the lamb. The wolf was drinking at the higher part of the 
stream, and the lamb some way lelow, so that the wolf was 
quite wrong; for the water went from the wolf down to the 
lamb, and could not come hack to the wolf. So the lamb 
quietly replied ' How can I spoil your water? It comes from 
you to me.' ^Perhaps you are right, ^ replied the wolf more 
savagely than before ; ' but why did you abuse me and call 
me a murderer?' 'I never did,' said the lamb. 'Yes, last 
year,' said the wolf. 'I was not born then,^ answered the 
trembling lamb. 'Ah,' replied the wolf, determined to pick 
a quarrel; 'I remember it was your father; certainly he 
abused me last July.' 'But my father died early in the 
spring, ' said the lamb. ' Then it was your grandfather or 
great-grandfather'; and at once he fell on the helpless 
creature and tore her in pieces. 

6. Fill in each blank with a preposition — with two or more when 

possible : 

(1) I differ you. 

(2) The locust the wall. 

(3) He died the winter. 

(4) The book the table. 

(5) I agree you. 

(6) We rode sunset, hills, fruitful vales, 

winding streams, thriving villages, nothing 

to annoy us dust. 

7. Use these phrases correctly in sentences : 

to eat. under the stone, 

will go. into the yard, 

will be going against the wall, 

might have been going with her. 

8. Pick out the phrases ; tell (1) what each modifies ; (3) whether it is 

used as an adjective, an adverb, or a noun; (3) what preposi- 
tion (if any) is used in the phrase, and why that word is a 
preposition: 



PARTS OF SPEECH — INDUCTION. 27 

A fox, passing by, seated himself at the foot of the tree. 

The boy with the best temper. 

Stories of interest to all. 

Pray without ceasing. 

The roof of the house is made of slate. 

It will be good for you. 

He had a, home in the country. 

He ran off, laughing at the foolish raven. 

9. Substitute in the above, when possible, single words for the 
prepositional phrases. 

10. Join the following by appropriate conjunctions : 

Wolves hunt in packs. Wild dogs hunt in packs. 

The moon has no water. The moon has no air. 

dead. He yet liveth. 

Carve out your own fortune. You would have any. 

He said The earth is round. 

Printing was invented Books became much cheaper. 

The powder was wet. The gun did not go off. 

11. Pick out the conjunctions below, and tell what sentences or 

parts they join : 

Once when the weather was very dry, a thirsty crow searched 
everywhere for water, but she could not find a drop. While 
she was croaking for sorrow, she spied a jug. Down she flew 
at once, and eagerly pushed in her bill; but it was of no 
use. There was plenty of water in the jug, but she could 
not reach it, because the neck of the vessel was so narrow. 
After she had tried in vain for half an hour to reach the 
water, she next attempted to tip the jug over; but it was too 
heavy for her, and she could not stir it. Just when she was 
on the point of giving up in despair, a new thought struck 
her. * If, ' said she, ' I drop some stones into the jug, the 
water will rise higher, and in time it will rise up to my bill. 
At once, though she was nearly fainting with thirst, she 
bravely set to work. As each stone fell, the water rose ; and, 
before half an hour had passed, the clever crow had drunk 
every drop in the jug. 



CHAPTEE Y. 

PARTS OF SPEECH — TRANSMUTATION. 

Just as a letter is made to do the work of other letters, 
so, in our language, a word that generally, or almost 
always, belongs to a particular class is made to do duty in 
some other class; that is, the same word may be now one 
part of speech, and now another, according to its tise — 
according to luJial it tells us in the sentence. 

Thus, a word that is usually an adverb may become a 

noun : 

(1) The ayes have it. 

(2) With God is an eternal now. 

(3) Start from here [= this spot]. 

A word that is usually an adjective may become a noun: 

(1) It was done in the dark. 

(2) The good die young. 

(3) Of old, this was not expected. 

Any letter, word, or group of words may, in certain 
connections, become a noun: 

(1) If is usually a conjunction. 

(2) Cross that t. 

(3) To give grudgingly is not charity. 

On the other hand, nouns and pronouns often do the 
work of adjectives: 

28 



PARTS OF SPEECH — TRANSMUTATION. 29 

(1) On the wild New-England shore. 

(2) He disliked the Health-of- Towns Act. 

(3) Which train will you take ? 

(4) You hard-hearted men. 

(5) They killed a she-hear. 

In these cases there is no change in the fonn of the 
noun or pronoun. In the following^ however, the form is 

changed : 

(1) Lend me your book. 

(2) The books are in Albert's desk. 

Here, each word really does the work of two parts of 
speech: ^Albert^s^ is a noun, in so far as it is a name; 
' your ' is a pronoun, in so far as it stands for, or represents, 
a name; both are adjectives m office — adjectives, in so far 
as they are modifiers. 

Verbals may do the work of adjectives: 

(1) A defeated army. 

(2) The whistling wind. 

(3) A desire to excel is commendable. 

A word that is usually an adverb may become an ad- 
jective: 

(1) The then ruler. 

(2) He took the down train. 

(3) He lives in yonder house. 

Conjunctions and prepositions, or words commonly so 
used, may become adjectives: 

(1) This will be told in after ages. 

(2) In the ahove discourse. 

Words that are usually nouns, pronouns, or adjectives, 
etc., may become verbs: 



30 LESSOJS^S IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

(1) Bridle the horse. 

(2) They idle away their time. 

(3) I thou thee, thou traitor. 

Observe how variously the same word is used, and how 
variously it must hence be classified, in the following: 

(1) A horse. 

(2) A ^orse-chestnut. 

(3) I live dow7i in the valley. 

(4) He Ta,n down the hill 

(5) It happened since Monday. 

(6) It has rained since you were there. 

(7) They exchange the silver watch for a lump of silver with 

which they silver some metal coin. 

(8) He had all but one, hut that was too heavy ; had he had but 

more time, he could have brought it too. 

Always ask what the word tells you, or to what other 
word it relates. If it throws its force on a verb, it is either 
a noun (or pronoun), or an adverb; if upon an adverb or 
adjective, it is an adverb; if upon a noun, it is an adjec- 
tive. If it is the name of anything we can think about or 
speak about — person, place, action, or thought — it is a 
noun; if it asserts, it is a verb. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Of what parts of speech are the following verbals? 

(1) Seeing is believing. 

(2) Father has gone a-hunting. 

(3) I saw a great piece of ordnance making. 

(4) Within the spund of some church-going bell. 

(6) I see men as trees walking. 

(7) Doubtless the pleasure is as great of being cheated as to 

cheat. 



PARTS OF SPEECH — TRANSMUTATIOlir. 31 

2. State first what the word tells you; then name its class: 
(1) All men are mortal. 
(3) All is lost. 

(3) All around the world. 

(4) A man like few others. 

(5) The like of it was never known. 

(6) They like to study. 

(7) He did so, because it was so heavy ; but his step was light, 

because his heart was so. 

(8) High life helow stairs. 

(9) Go helow. 

(10) The power from helow. 

(11) A running fire. 

(12) The messenger came running. 

(13) How far is it? 

(14) A result far beyond his hopes. 

(15) He went there. 

(16) My stay there was short. 

(17) His cousin was a soldier, 

(18) His soldier cousin. 

(19) Wliich will you take? 

(20) TTMc/fcbook will you take? 

Suggestion. — Remember your definition of a pronoun — it is used for a 
noun, not with a noun. 

(21) The which clause is an integral part of the sentence. 

(22) What by this, and what by that, he succeeded. 

(23) The what is more important than the how. 

(24) The book which you have is mine. 

(25) Distinguish between which and what, 

(26) Not a drum was heard, not a funeral note. 

(37) To equal wl?Sch the tallest pine were hut a wand. 

(28) The thunder afar roused up the soldier. 

(29) The torrid clime smote on him sore besides, 

(30) Ellie went home, sad and slow. 

(31) Yet let not one heart-heat go astray. 



LESSONS IN" ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

(32) A love that shall be new and fresh each hour as the sweet 

comi7ig of the evening star. 

(33) And make life, death, and that vast forever one grand, 

sweet song. 

(34) All that is shall be turned to was. 

(35) Do you think I fahle with you ? 

(36) Who came after me ? 

(37) "Who came soon after? 

(38) Who came after I left? 

(39) Be mum until I return. 

(40) The proudest he that stops my way. 

(41) The effect of thine o-yes was strange. 

(42) Here we may reign secure. 

(43) Farthest from him is best. 

(44) This was my happy triumph morning. 

(45) The old she goat seemed uneasy. 

(46) Heavens! how dull he is ! 

(47) Mark you his absolute shall! 

(48) He answered without an if or a hut. 

(49) He went away sorrowing. 

(50) He rode seated between two oflBcers. 

(51) A fast was kept. 

(52) They were told to fast. 

(53) He drives fast. 

(54) He drives fast horses. 

(55) They walked past the house. 

(56) They walked j?as^. 

(57) Past sorrows are soon forgotten. 

(58) The sorrows of the past are forgotten. 

(59) You fi7ie down your distinction till there is nothing left. 

(60) // me no ifs. 

(61) He was an only son. 

(62) The man that did this. 

(63) The man said that he would go. 

(64) He spoke in imder-iones. 

(65) The day before was rainy, and so was the day after. 



PARTS OF SPEECH — TEAKSMUTATIOi^. 33 

(66) They will it. 

(67) He has a strong will. 

(68) In the second place, I second your proposal. 
(60) The wall within and that without. 

(70) Round the rocks they ran, where the round bay, swerving 

round gently, rounds the rugged shore. 

(71) Thou losest here, a better where to find. 



OHAPTEE TI 

PARTS OF SPEECH — PHRASE EQUIVALENTS. 

A Phrase is any combination of words that does not 
include both subject and predicate; as — 

To sing. 

Might have died. 

The boy. 

Having crossed the river. 

We are now to consider more particularly how grounds 
of words whose meanings are closely united very often 
perform the duties of single words. Thus: 

The bear sprang hastily from his grassy bed = The bear 

sprang in haste from his bed of grass. 
Erring is human = To err is human. 

Your mistake is deplorahle = Your mistake is to be deplored. 
Be good that you may be happy. 

Hence we may arrange |)hrases in the same classes in 
which we arrange words. If the phrase has the value of a 
noun, it is a noun; if it throws its force upon a noun, it 
is an adjective; if upon an adjective or adverb, it is an 
adverb; if upon a verb, it is either a noun or an adverb, 
according to its use; if it asserts, it is a verb. Thus: 

(1) The house stood [where] on yonder hill . . . Adverb. 

(2) The house [what house ?] on yonder hill is sold Adjective. 

34 



PAKTS OF SPEECH — PHKASE EQUIVALEN^TS. 35 

(3) The house standing on yonder hill ^ . . . . Adjective. 

(4) He wished [what?] me to go home Noun. 

(5) To love our neighbors as ourselves is divine . . . Noun. 

(6) This done we departed [when?] Advei'h. 

A phrase is frequently introduced by a preposition, a 
verbal, or a normal ^ adjective: 

(1) The study of history improves the mind. 
(3) To forget an injury is noble. 

(3) Caesar, having crossed the Ruhicon, gave battle. 

(4) He was a man generous in all things. 

The adjective-phrase in (4) includes an adverbial phrase. 

EXERCISES. 

In the following sentences, classify, as to offiice, each of the phrases 
printed in italics, and tell what you can about the form : 

1. To die for one's country is sweet. 

2. Exhausted hy fatigue, we lay down to rest. 

3. Resentment ties all the terrors of our tongue. 

4. He hears the parson pray and preach. 

5. Little Ellie, with her smile not yet ended, rose up gayly. 

6. It is a thing to walk with. 

7. You have confessed yourself a spy. 

8. Dear flower, fringing the dusty road with harmless gold. 

^ The whole phrase is adjective because it modifies the noun ' house' ; 'on 
yonder hill' is adverb, as in (2), because it modifies the verbal adjective 
'standing.' 

«A word used regularly as an adjective. 



OHAPTEE VIL 

PARTS OF SPEECH — CLAUSE "EQUIVALENTS. 

Sentences (groups of words including both subject and 
predicate) frequently do the work of single words. Thus: 

The wise man = The man who is wise. 

He reported the death of the king = He reported that the king 

had died. 
The lo7ig-tailed monkey = The monkey that has the long tail = 

The monkey with the long toil. 

Other examples are: 

(1) Speak [how?] as he does Adverb. 

(2) He asked [what?] why we are absent .... Noun. 

(3) Her answer was [what ?] 'Seve?i are we' . . . Noun. 

(4) The causes that led to the war [what causes?] . Adjective. 

(5) That we are safe is apparent [what is apparent ?] . Noun. 

A sentence thus doing the work of a noun^ an adjec- 
tive, or an adverb^ is called a Clause. It differs from a 
phrase in containing both subject and predicate: it resem- 
bles a phrase in being used with the force of a single word. 

When phrases and clauses, and words not regularly 
nouns, are used in sentences with the value of nouns, they 
are said to be used substantively. ' Substantive ' is an- 
other ^name for noun/ 

Inquire Jww the clause is used in the sentence. Is it 
subject? does it tell what is asserted? — If so, it is a noun. 

36 



PARTS OF SPEECH — CLAUSE EQUIVALENTS. 37 

Does its meaning relate to a noun? — If so, it is an ad- 
jective. Does it throw its force upon an adjective or an 
adverb? — If so, it is an adverb. Does it seem to be more 
closely connected with the verb than with any thing else? 
— Then it is either a noun or an adverb. Can it be the 
former? If not, it is the latter. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Classify the clauses, giving the reasons why: 

(1) He was so weak that he fell. 

(2) That he fell is certain. 

(3) He said that he fell. 

(4) The fact that he fell is apparent. 

(5) You err in that you think so. 

(6) I am sorry that you think so. 

(7) The country whence he came is desolate. 

(8) I know not whence he came. 

(9) If I fought hravely, 1 should be rewarded. 

(10) You have heard if I fought bravely. 

(11) Wliy we the stern usurper spared I know not. 

(12) But I saw a glow-worm near, who replied: 

' ' What wailing wight 

Calls the watchman of the night ? ' 
, (13) I answered whenever you called. 

(14) I can always tell when you are angry. 

(15) Socrates was one of the greatest sages the world ever saw. 

(16) Youth is the time when the seeds of character are sown. 

(17) This is a proof that he never came. 

(18) There are many things I might tell you. 

(19) God was angry with the children of Israel, for he overthrew 

them in the wilderness. 

(20) As I entered, so will I retire. 

(21) Then think I of meadows where in sun the cattle graze. 

(22) Unless I am mistaketi, it was he. 



38 LESSON^S IK EKGLISH GRAMMAE. 

(23) They are better than we had expected. 

(24) I fear he will not succeed. 

(25) I am certain he will not succeed. 

(26) I found the book you want. 

2. Tell whether the italicized parts are phrases or clauses, and 

classify each, giving reasons: 

(1) To confess the truth, I was wrong. 

(2) You have no right to decide who are interested. 

(3) He had an axe to grind. 

(4) I am thy father's spirit, doomed for a certain time to walk 

the night. 

(5) The year when Chaucer was born is uncertain, 

(6) Dying for a principle is a higher degree of virtue than 

scolding. 

(7) They will call before leaving the city. 

(8) They will call before they leave the city. 

(9) Whose gray top shall tremble, he descending. 

(10) They that toiich pitch will be defiled. 

(11) He came. 

(12) Because he came. 

3. In two different sentences use the same word (same in form) as 

an adjective and as an adverb. 

4. In two different sentences use the same word as a preposition 

and as a conjunction. 

5. In two different sentences use the same word as a conjunction 

and as an adverb. 

6. In two different sentences use the same word as a pronoun and as 

a conjunction. 

7. In three different sentences use the same word as a noun, as a verb, 

and as an adjective. 

8. Compose a sentence containing a noun-phrase, an adjective- 

phrase, and an adverb-phrase. 



PAKTS OF SPEECH — CLAUSE EQUIVALENTS. 39 

9. Compose a sentence containing three adjective-phrases, — one 
introduced by a -preposition, one by an adjective, and one by 
a verbaL 

10. Compose a sentence containing four different forms of phrases 

— two being of one kind, and two of another. 

11. Compose sentences each of which shall contain a clause: 

(1) Three with clauses used as nouns — one as subject, two in 

the predicate. 

(2) Three with clauses used as adjectives. 

(3) Six with clauses used as adverbs — two modifying an adjec- 

tive, two a verb, and two an adverb. 



OHAPTEE YIII 

PARTS OF SPEECH — NOUNS CLASSIFIED. 

Just as there are eight different kinds of roses, lilies, or 
apples, so each of the eight great classes of words may be 
divided into other classes. Thus, in the sentences — 

Emily is the oldest daughter of the family, 
London is the largest city in the world, 

' Emily ' and ^ daughter ' are simply different names for the 
same person; '^ London ' and ' city ' are likewise applied to 
the same object. But ' daughter ' is a name that belongs 
to Emily and each of her sisters — it belongs to all girl- 
children; and ' city ' is the name of all places of sufficient 
size — it is the name of every one of a class. '^ Emily,' on 
the contrary, is a word used to distinguish one member of 
the family from the rest — it is her own; and '^London' is 
a name by which one city is distinguished from other 
cities. 

A name given to an individual of a class, to distinguish 
it from the other individuals of that class, is a Proper i 
Noun. 

In contrast to such, all other names are called Common 
Nonns — names owned in common by a number of things 
of the same sort — class names. 

* Latin proprius, proper = peculiar to one. 

40 



PARTS OF SPEECH — KOUITS CLASSIFIED. 41 

The pupil must bear in mind that here, as elsewhere, 
everything depends upon iise — the class to which a noun 
belongs depends entirely upon the duty it performs in 
each particular case. Thus ^ White ^ and ^ Longfellow^ 
point out individuals, ^ white ' and ' long fellow ' do not. 
' Sea ' is a common name and '^ dead ' is a common quality; 
but if we wish to combine these two in order to point out 
a single object, this peculiar use makes them in every sense 
projMv, — '^Dead Sea." Most mountains are green, but 
some are especially so; and custom says that the latter shall 
be known as the "^ Green Mountains.^ ^Providence" means 
simply care, and therefore in itself is a common noun; but 
when it is used to denote the Creator of the world, it is in 
that connection a projDcr noun, and this different use is, in 
writing, made known to the eye by beginning the word 
with a larger letter, ^ Decline," ' fall," and ' empire," again, 
are in themselves common; but, combined into the name 
of a particular book, they become, by this new and special 
duty, proper, as in Gibbon's ' Decline and Fall of the Ro- 
man Empire." 

When a common noun includes in one mass or body a 
number of individuals, it is said to be a Collective Noun : 

The fleet was victorious. 
He saw a /foc^' of sheep. 

A common noun that is the name of an action, is a 
Verbal Noun : 

We are fond of reading. 
Giving is better than receiving. 

We may also remind you of the verbal noun-phrase : 

To give is better than to receive. 
I do not like heing deceived. 
Without heing very much surprised. 



42 LESSOKS 11^ ENGLISH GRAMMAE. 

A common noun that is the name of a material, is called 
a Material Noun: 

It was made of iron. 
Brass is composed of zinc and copper. 
The earth rotates on its axis. 
Look at this piece of chalk. 

A common noun that is the name of a quality of some 
person or thing, is an Abstract Noun.i Thus, chalk is 
white, solid, rough or smooth, useful, etc. These words 
tell us of wliat sort. The names of these qualities are 
^whiteness," ''solidity,' ^roughness' or ^smoothness,' '^use- 
fulness,' etc. Similarly: 

Have courage and patience. 

Her friendship is ennobling. 

His generosity won him many friends. 

Names of the objects possessing these qualities — names 
of whatever can be seen, touched, tasted, smelled, or heard, 
are Concrete Nouns ; 2 as 'James,' 'flower,' ' ice,' ' army,' 
'boy.' 

EXERCISES. 

1 . Fill in the blanks of the first group with collective nouns ; of the 
second with verbal nouns; of the third, with abstract nouns: 
(1) A bevy of 

A tribe of 

meets in December. 

was organized in July. 



(2) We dislike 

are necessary. 

is forbidden. 

I like 



^Latin abstractus, drawn ofF, separated ; hence the quality apart from the 
object to which it belongs. 

'-' Latin concretus, grown together; hence, formed by the union of particles. 



PARTS OF SPEECH — NOUNS CLASSIFIED. 43 



(3) Cultivate 



shall not be forgotten. 

He expressed his 

His was great. 

ruins many. 

2. Tell the difference between the nouns in each of the following 

expressions : 

(1) A bunch of grapes. 

(2) A group of girls. 

(3) The weight of the lead. 

(4) The laughing of the knot of boys. 

(5) The master of the school. 

(6) Punishment for having lied. 

3. Write or repeat the names of qualities expressed by 'harsh,' 

'small,' 'truthful,' 'cruel,' 'kind,' 'long,' 'strong,' 'glad.' 

4. Tell all you can about each noun in — 

At the time of Braddock's defeat, an Indian chief named 
Pontiac had seen the red-coats running away before his own 
men. Being a man of great courage and skill, he laid a plan 
to unite all the tribes of his race, and to drive the English 
out of America. First he tried to take Detroit, which was 
then only a fort; but he failed, and his conspiracy broke 
down. Soon after, he was murdered, in a drunken frolic, by 
another Indian. 



CHAPTEE IX. 

PARTS OF SPEECH — PRONOUNS CLASSIFIED. 

There may be .several persons represented in a sen- 
tence: 

I said to the man who stood near me, * Did you see the boy when 
he did this?' 

Here ^ I ' and ^ me ' stand for the name of the person 
speaking. ' You ' stands for the name of the man, the per- 
son spoken to. ^ He ^ stands for the name of the boy, the 
person spoken of. ^Who^ stands for ^man/ and carries 
back to it the predicate ^ stood near me.' *^This' stands 
for the name of the thing spoken of, and refers to it defi- 
nitely — pointedly. 

Again: 

Who rang the bell ? 

What are you reading? 

What book are you reading? 

Do you know this man ? 

Here, as before, ' who ' stands for the name of a person 
(unknown), but receives a new character from being used 
to inquire after that person. The first ^ what ' evidently 
inquires after a thing, stands for the name of it, and is 
therefore a pronoun; the second leans upon '^book,' and is 
therefore an adjective. ' This ' points out, particularizes, 
but does not stand alone, and therefore has ceased to be a 
pronoun. 

44 



PARTS OF SPEECH — PRONOUKS CLASSIFIED. 45 

Certain other words^ used to signify persons or things 
taken generally^ have a likeness to pronouns: 

Either will do. 
Nobody knows you. 
Ten will be chosen. 
The little ones are asleep. 
The others are in the parlor. 

According to their uses, then, pronouns are — 

1. Personal— a/ ^he/ ^she/ and ^it.' So called 
because they name the person speaking, or the person or 
thing spoken of. 

2. Demonstrative — 'this/ 'that/ 'same/ 'such.' 
So called because they speak definitely of the thing named. 
' This' points to the object nearer the speaker; 'that/ to 
the object farther off: 

In this 'tis God directs, in that 'tis man. 

3. Relative — 'who/ 'which/ 'what/ 'that.' So 
called because they usually relate, or carry us back, to 
some noun or pronoun going before, and already given, 
called the antecedent, 

4. Interrogative — 'who,' 'which,' 'what,' 'whether,' 
(archaic). So called because they are used in asking 
questions. 'Who' is substantive only; 'which' and 
'what' are substantive or adjective, according to the con- 
nection. 

5. Indefinite — 'some,' 'any,' 'many,' 'few,' 'all,' 
'both,' 'none,' 'each,' 'either,' 'neither,' 'other,' 'an- 
other,' 'aught,' 'naught'; and the compounds of 'some,' 
'any,' 'every,' and 'no,' with 'one,' 'thing,' and 'body'; 
as, 'somebody,' ' anything,' etc. So called because, while 



46 LESSONS li^ ENGLISH GEAMMAR. 

they stand for names, they do not point out or particu- 
larize. They are in fact intermediate between real pro- 
nouns and nouns or adjectives. They may be either sub- 
stantive or adjective. 

The pronoun-phrases, "^each other' and '^one another^ 
are now used as simple indefinite pronouns. They are 
called reciprocal pronoTins, because they express the 
mutual influence of two or more objects: 

They love each other = 
They love, each [of them the] other. 
They whisper to one another = 
They whisper, one to another. 

The personal pronoiins are combined with ' self ' — 

(1) To mark emphasis; as ^He himself did it.' 

(2) Chiefly, to form reflexives — that is, to indicate 
that the action of the verb is reflected back upon the 
actor; as *^He hurt Jiimself.' 

The pronoun it appears to have several distinct modes 
of reference — 

(1) To a substantive going before; as '^I went to the 
river; it was swollen." 

(2) To a sentence going before; as ^ The day ivill le 
clear, who doubts it? 

(3) To a word phrase or clause coming after; as — 

It is a beautiful child. 

It is pleasant to see the sun. , 

I can make it clear that I am guiltless. 

(4) There is, further, a wide and an exceedingly vague 
use of '^ it,' not to be overlooked: 



PAETS OF SPEECH — PKONOUKS CLASSIPIED. 47 

It is they. 

Trip it as ye go'. 

Who is it? 

It rains. 

It will soon come to a quarrel. 

Observe that relative pronouns not only stand for 
nouns, but, unlike other pronouns, join to some foregoing 
word a modifying clause; that is, they are also conjunc- 
tions — ^ Happy is the man that findeth wisdom, and the 
man who getteth understanding.' 

Certain adverbs, derived from relative pronouns, are 
often used with the above described value of relatives: 

The spot whereon [ ^ on which] he stands. 
The day when [ = on which] you were born. 
Do you see the place where he lies? 

In such cases, the adverbs have two values. As connect- 
ing their clauses with the antecedents, they are conjunc- 
tions; as modifiers of the verbs in their own clauses 
(^stands,' ^born,' and ^ies'), they are adverbs. 

The word but, too, in certain negative assertions has 
the force of a relative or conjunctive pronoun: 

There was no man hut did his best = 
There was no man that did not his best. 

As, preceded, by ^some," ^such,' or '^many,' has the 
force of a relative: 

He denounced such as voted against him = 

He denounced them that [or who] voted against him. 

As many as wish to go, may go. 



48 LESSON'S 11^" ENGLISH GRAMMAE. 

What, as a relative, is not used of persons, and is 
commonly said to differ from the other relatives in that it 
contains within itself both antecedent and relative: 

Give me what you have = 
Give me that which you have. 

It were better, however, to say that the antecedent ' that,^ 
or ^that thing, ^ is understood. In the following sentence 
it is expressed: 

What our contempt doth often hurl from us, 
We wish it ours again. 

Which, as a relative, applies only to things, a com- 
paratively modern restriction; but, as an interrogative, to 
either persons or things; as, ' Which of you convinceth me 
of sin?^ This word preserves for us the adjective lie 
(like) and the pronoun hwa (who). Old-English forms 

are hwilic, hivilc. 

« 

Not infrequently the relative is omitted: 

The book [thaf] you sent me. 

The message [thaf] I was sent with. 

'Tis distance \that^ lends enchantment to the view. 

The relatives are compounded with ^so,^ '^ever,' and 
•^ soever,^ giving an indefinite meaning, and having their 
antecedents often left unexpressed: 

Whosoever is wise = 
Any person who is wise. 

There is a similar indefinite use of the simple who; as — 

' Who steals my purse, steals trash.' 

The pupil must not fall into the error of thinking that 
the foregoing words, or others, belong always to the same 



PAKTS OF SPEECH — PEOKOUKS CLASSIFIED. 49 

class. Many of them are freely otherwise used, and then 
must be classified accordingly. 

EXERCISES. 

Classify the pronouns, supplying such as are omitted, and giving 
your reasons in each case for the classification : 

1. Who said that? 

2. I don't know who said that. 

3. I don't know the man who said that. 

4. That man will be elected. 

5. What book is that ? 

6. I said that. 

7. I said that I would go. 

8. He is the man that said that. 

9. That that that that man used should have been a which. 

10. The bed which he bought. 

11. The ground whereon he lay. 

12. There is something in the wind. 

13. There is somewhat in the wind. 

14. It is a pretty saying of a wicked one. 

1 5. We speak that we do know and testify that we have seen. 

16. What night is that which saw that I did see? 

17. That gentleness as I was wont to have. 

18. There is nothing good or bad but thinking makes it so. 

19. The place whereto he came, was waste and bare. 

20. Whether is greater the gift or the altar ? 

21. Either's love was cither's life. 

22. He knew not which was which. 

23. It is not difficult to die. 

24. It grew dark fast. 

25. The good news came at a time when good news was 

needed. 

26. I will call when you return. 

27. I thought he was a rascal, and he was so. 

28. The ass that frightened the beasts of the forest was laughed 

at when he began to bray. 



50 LESSONS li^ ENGLISH GRAMMAE. 

29. If you are a man, show yourself such. 

30. He has such great confidence that he will be sure to suc- 

ceed. 

31. Who gained the prize? 

32. Did you ask who gained the prize? 

33. This is the house Jack built. 

34. "Which have you? 

35- Which book have you? 

36. You know which book I have. 

37. Find out which of the girls whispered. 

38. I can not tell which girl whispered. 



CHAPTEE X. 

PARTS OF SPEECH — VERBS CLASSIFIED. 

We have found that every sentence must have a Verb 
in it — that the verb, alone or with other words, forms the 
predicate. 

Verbs that of themselves have full meaning as predi- 
cates, are said to be complete ; as 

Fishes swim. They went. 

Water freezes. Truth exists. 

He sleeps. Fire hums. 

When, in order to make sense, a verb requires the 
addition of a word relating either (I) to itself, or (2) to the 
subject, it is said to be incomplete ; as 

(1) I shut the door. 
He struck John. 

(2) He looks sick. 
I am the man. 

The completing word or group of words is called the 
complement. 

Verbs like those of (1) are incomplete in the sense of 
calling for the addition of a word to express some person or 
thing on which the action is exerted. A much smaller 
class, like those of (2), are incomplete in the sense of call- 
ing for some addition relating to the subject, and further 
describing or qualifying it. 

51 



52 LESSOi^S 11^ ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

A verb that^ like ''am'' in (2), merely couples or links 
the complement to the subject, is called copula. i Thus: 

God is good. He will be ill. 

You are happy. He may be ill. 

Rome was a city. He may have been ill. 

They had been friends. He must not be ill. 

If the verb not only couples the complement to the 
subject, but has, in addition, some meaning of its own, it 
is said to be copulative (partaking of the nature of 

copula). Thus: 

He looks sick= 

He is, in looks [or according to his looks] sick. 

Other copulatives are ^ become,^ ^seem,^ '^ appear," ^feel," 
^grow," ^continue," "^ smell," '^ stand," '^ sit," etc. 

He continues grateful. 
He stands firm. 
They sit mute. 

The same word, be it remembered, may be complete, 
incomplete, copulative, or no verb at all; as — 

Ice melts. I am [= exist]. 

Heat melts ice. I am your brother. 

March your corps to Paris. It rained. 

The march was fatiguing. It rained manna. 

A certain difference of meaning, again, separates verbs 
into two principal classes: 

1. Transitive; 2 which express an action that termi- 
nates directly on some object: 

Heat melts ice. 
Cold freezes water. 

1 From the Latin, and meaning a coupler, or link. 

2 Latin trans, over, and ire, to go, the idea being that the action passes 
over from the subject and affects some object. 



PAKTS OF SPEECH — VERBS CLASSIFIED. 53 

2. Intransitive; which express (1) a state or condi- 
tion; (2) an action not terminating on an object (or doing 
so only by help of a preposition) : 

He sleeps well [state or condition]. 
He arose [action confined to subject]. 

He ran against the man [action expended on an object by help 
of preposition]. 

This, however, is not always a distinction in the nature 
of things; for the same verb, expressing the same action, 
may be either transitive or intransitive: 

(1) The child sees the house. 

(2) The new-born child sees, the kitten is blind. 

(3) He struck the man. 

(4) He struck at the man. 

(5) The boy ran. 

(6) The boy ran a race. 

(7) The boy ran them out of the yard. 

(8) He dreams. 

(9) He dreams a dream. 

(10) He dreams of being at home. 

(11) He dreams that he is at home. 

In (6), (9), and (11), the verb is said to take a cognate 
object; that is, an object whose meaning is like that of the 
verb. 

Verbs used with the subject it (when ^it^ is indefinite) 
are sometimes — though the distinction is of very little 
worth — said to be imj^ersonal; as ^It thunders.' In the 
earliest period, to express some unknown cause of inex- 
plicable results, they wrote ' It repents, shames, me."* A 
relic of the old usage is ^methinks'; that is, *It seems or 
appears to me/ 



54 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Words denoting state or action, but without asserting 
it (verbals), may of course be used and be modified in the 
same way as verbs, and hence will be similarly classified: 

He was fond of reading. 
* He was fond of reading newspapers. 

To read profitaUy, read carefully. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Construct sentences in which each of these words shall receive 

two or more classifications — transitive, intransitive, complete, 
incomplete, copulative — as verbs : 

teach smell 

broke have been 

ring speak 

stand singing 

2. Pick out the verbs, and state (after giving your- reasons) (1) 

whether they are transitive or intransitive ; (2) if intransitive, 
whether they are copulas, copulatives, or neither : 

(1) He rested easily. 

(2) He rested himself. 

(3) Elephants eat. 

(4) Elephants eat greedily. 

(5) Elephants eat candy. 

(6; He sleeps the sleep of death. 

(7) The baby walked. 

(8) The boy walked rapidly. 

(9) The boy walked himself weary. 

(10) He leaves town to-morrow. 

(11) He is leaving for India. 

(12) But see thou change no more. 

(13) Part we in friendship from your land. 

(14) Should I not write, you must know all is well. 

(15) He had been blamable. 
(,16) Law wills that it be known. 



PARTS OF SPEECH — VERBS CLASSIFIED. 55 

(17) He looked a look that threatened her insult. 

(18) May there be no ill-will between us. 

(19) Motionless as a cloud the old man stood. 
(30) What matter where, if I be still the same, 

And what I should be, all but less than He 
Whom thunder hath made greater? 

3. Pick out the verbs and verbals, and classify them into transitive 

and intransitive : 

An old man had several sons, who were very quarrelsome. 
Few days passed without a violent quarrel, and often they 
came to blows. One day when the young men were bring- 
ing some faggots home for firewood, the father called them 
round him. Speaking to the eldest, who was first in order, 
he bade him try to break a faggot ; he tried, but could not 
break it. Then turning to the next son, 'See,' said the old 
man, 'whether you can break this faggot.' But neither the 
second, nor the third, nor the seventh (for there were seven 
sons) could manage to break the faggot. Then the old man, 
undoing the string that fastened the faggot, broke each stick 
• , separately. 'If you keep together,' said he, 'no man will 
be able to hurt you ; but if you continue your foolish quar- 
rels, your enemies will destroy you, just as I break these 
sticks.' 



OHAPTEE XI 

PARTS OF SPEECH — ADJECTIVES CLASSIFIED. 

An Adjective is a word joined to a noun, or its equiv- 
alent, to limit its application. The important divisions are: 

1. Quality Adjectives, those that express some prop- 
erty or characteristic in the object described; as 'bright/ 
'wise/ 'good/ etc. These embrace the great body of ad- 
jectives. Proper adjectives — those derived from proper 
names — are chiefly adjectives of quality, as 'the Socratic 
method.' 

2. Interrogative Adjectives, or the interrogative 
pronouns, 'which' and 'what,' used adjectively: 'Which 
boy did it?' 'What book are you reading?' 

3. Demonstrative Adjectives, or those that particu- 
larize; as 'the,' 'this,' 'that,' 'former,' 'latter,' 'yonder,' 
etc. The words 'this' and 'that,' along with 'these' and 
'those,' have the same differences of meaning when adjec- 
tives as when pronouns. 

'The,' derived from the Anglo-Saxon thmt, is common- 
ly called the Definite Article. It has an adverbial use in 
such a sentence as ' The more you study, the better you will 
like it.' This is a relic of the Anglo-Saxon ' Thi mar a 
thi hetra/ etc. 

4. Quantity Adjectives, those that express some 

56 



PARTS OF SPEECH — ADJECTIVES CLASSIFIED. 57 

extension, of number or measure, in the object. They may 
be subdivided into: 

(1) Quantity in mass or bulk; as ' much benefit/ ^ little 
light/ 'less light/ 'great rivers/ 'some feeling. ■* 

(2) Quantity in number. Under these we have — 

{a) Definite, numerals; as ' one, two, three, four, or five days ' 
{cardinal number); ^ first, second, third, fourth, oy fifth 
day' {ordinal number). The multiplicatives, 'single,' 
'double,' 'twofold,' 'threefold,' etc., maybe included; 
also 'another,' the second of two, and 'both,' mean- 
ing two taken together. 

(b) Indefinite numerals; as ^ any apples,' ^many books,' 
many a man,' * all men,' ^ some men,' ^certain men,' 
^feiv m'en,' ' not a few men,' ' most men,' ^no man.' 
In a positive sense ' a ' and ' any, ' as derived from Anglo- 
Saxon an (one), mean 'one,' but without emphasis. 
An or A is called the Indefinite Article, and is used 
only with a singular noun. ' An ' is used before a vowel- 
sound, ' a ' before a consonant. 

{c) Distributive numerals: *each,' denoting two or more 
things taken separately ; ' either, ' one of the two ; 
' neither, ' excluding each of two ; ' every, ' meaning each 
individual of a group or collection separately consid- 
ered — an emphatic word for 'all'; 'several,' a small 
number — 'several men were killed.' 

Here again we must remind ourselves that a given word 
has not always the same use; for some of the above are 
mentioned in two classes, and were previously mentioned 
as pronouns. We have seen elsewhere how frequently words 
that are usually (normally) one part of speech are made to 
do duty {abnor7nally'^) as another: 

^Latin a6, from, and normal, regular ; departing from regular usage. 



58 



LESSONS IN ENGLISH GKAMMAK. 



Nouns. 



> 
a. 



Cod-Liver oil \ 
Mountain rill ' 

The under current Preposition. 

Hither Gaul Adverb. 

The let-alone policy Verb. 

An out-of-the-way place . . Phrase. 

Take also the following: 

(1) John's book. 

(2) Paul, the apostle. 

(3) The human form, God''s image. 

(4) Love of country. 

(5) Man, aspiring to angelic heights. 

(6) The soldier to be executed was saved. 

(7) The man who loves virtue will be safe. 

(8) The fact that he succeeded is apparent. 

All these italicized parts are adjectives in office or 
effect — abnormal adjectives we may call them. 

Nouns used as in (2) and (3) and (8), to explain or 
identify, are called Appositives, or are said to be in 
apposition.'^ Apposition may be assumed, as in (2); also 
adjective limitation generally, as in ^his luhite hair'; or 
they may be asserted, ^ as in — 

Paul was an apostle. 
His hair is white. 



EXERCISES. 

1. Distinguish between 'pen,' ' a pen,' 'one pen,' and 'the pen.' 

2. Explain the difference between 'Her soldier cousin,' 'Her cousin, 

a soldier,' and ' Her cousin was a soldier.' 

* Latin apponere, to put beside. 

* There are some Verbs whose nature it is thus to connect Nouns or Pro- 
nouns, placing them, as it were, in Apposition.— Rev. E. A. Abbott: How to 
Parse. 



PAETS OF SPEECH — ADJECTIVES CLASSIFIED. 59 

3. Modify the following nouns (1) by appositives, (2) by verbal and 

prepositional phrases, (3) by relative clauses : 

Washington Peter 

ox power 

college economy 

care fact 

gold rank 

mountain memory 

life habit 

4. Use each of these words and phrases as an adjective: 

Baltimore whose 

his American 

Henry's flying 

few loaded 

that to come 

what of words 

5. Classify the adjectives (1) into normal and abnormal, and (2) into 

quality, quantity, interrogative, and demonstrative : 
A great battle was raging between the birds and the beasts ; it 
had lasted all day, and was not yet decided. Not a bird or 
beast but had taken one side or other in the battle — all but 
the bat. She alone, the cowardly creature, would take no 
part with either side. In vain the eagle, the general of the 
birds, being hard pressed by his enemies the beasts, sent her 
his commands by the swallow to join the army of the birds. 
'How can you give me the name of bird?' she replied; 
* what bird has teeth as I have ? ' Soon afterwards the lion, 
the king of beasts, finding the battle going against him, 
sent to say that he would forgive her her past cowardic'e if 
she came at once to join his army. ' What right has he to 
ask of me such a favor? ' replied the bat. * How can he take 
me for a beast ? Even a mole can see that I have wings. 
Who ever saw a beast with wings ? ' 
Saying these words, she flew to the birds, who seemed on the 
point of gaining a complete victory, and eagerly offered the 
eagle her services. But the eagle answered, ' Just now you 



60 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

told us that you were a beast. Go to your friends the beasts. 
They need your help more than we.' The bat retired in con- 
fusion; but an hour afterwards, fortune inclining towards 
the beasts, she humbly approached the lion offering him her 
help. ' You would not do us a kindness when we were in 
trouble,' roared the lion, ' and now do you talk about giving 
us your help? Away with you! The battle once over, I will 
make short work with you.' 
Rejected by both parties — the natural result of her cowardice 
— the bat was forced to lead a solitary life. So she skulks 
in dark places and prefers the night to the day — a warning 
to all men that they must not 'trim.' 



CHAPTEE XII. 

PARTS OP SPEECH — ADVERBS CLASSIFIED. 

An Adverb is a word used to limit the application of 
a verb^ adjective, or other adverb. There are instances 
where the adverb seems to throw its force on a preposition; 
as Hong after the event/ 'much before the event/ 'greatly 
above him^; but in these cases the adverb may be said to 
modify really the adverbial or adjective phrase. The chief 
varieties are adverbs of — 

1. Place, or Local; as 'there/ '^ where/ 'below,^ 
'yonder/ 'thither/ 'thence/ 'whence/ 'near/ 

The first of these has a very peculiar use. Instead of say- 
ing 'once a good king ivas,' or 'once a good king existed/ we 
say ' there was once a good king. ' In this use, the word 
has no reference to the idea of place — it is a mere intro- 
ductory (or expletive) word. Nor is it difficult to account 
for the transition. To say that a thing is in a certain 
place is implicitly to say that it exists; and hence the 
localizing statement, ' once a king was there/ has become 
the statement of existence, i ' there was once a king [ = a 
king once existed].^ 

2. Time, or Temporal; as 'ever,' 'lately,' 'often/ 
'twice,' 'daily/ 'while,' 'when,' etc. 

3. Cause, or Causal; as 'therefore/ 'wherefore/ 
' why,' etc. 

1 Bain. 61 



62 LESSONS IK ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

4. Degree or Measure, or Intensive [how much?]; 
as 'almost/ *^ nearly/ 'little/ 'partly/ 'sufficiently,^ 
'much/ 'quite/ etc. 

5. Manner, or Modal: (1) 'well/ 'wisely/ 'how/ 
etc.; (2) 'truly/ 'surely/ 'probably/ 'yes/ 'not/' etc. 

Those under (1) throw their force, in general, upon 
words; those under (2) more especially upon statements, 
showing how the thought is conceived, as in 'he is cer- 
tainly, probably, possibly, or not sick.' 

6. 'Yes' and 'no,' used in responding to questions are 
called Responsives. They modify very loosely, if at all. 

Other parts of speech are occasionally used as adverbs. 
Many words that in their usual application are preposi- 
tions, are thus employed: 

He stood hy. 
He went down. 
Go in and see him. 
He passed through. 

Also: 

(1) He went home. 

(2) He sat an h^ur. 

(3) Drink deep. 

(4) The sea- wind sang shrill. 

(5) Right against the window. 

(6) It is somewhat large. 

(1) and (2) may be explained by the abbreviation of the 
adverbial phrases, 'to his home,' 'for or during an hour'; 
(3) and (4) are mainly the usage of poetry. 



PARTS OF SPEECH — ADVERBS CLASSIFIED. 63 

The equivalents of the adverb are phrases and clauses: 

Easy to see. 

The sun sets in glory. 

Convenient /or overseeing the work. 

At sunrise the ship sailed. 

The sun rising, the ship sailed. 

When the sun rose, the ship sailed. 

As thy day is, so shall thy strength be. 

If you go, I will follow. 

I will follow wherever you go. 

7. Some of the above, used in asking questions, may 
be called Interrogative Adverbs; as 'when/ 'where/ 
'whither/ 'whence/ 'why/ 'how/ — all derived from the 
Anglo-Saxon hwa, 'who."* 

8. When they introduce a modifying clause, they are 
conjunctive; and since they also modify the verb of the 
clause that contains them, they are called Conjunctive 
Adverbs : ' I will praise thee wJiile I live/ 

9. They are also, it will be remembered, used with the 
value of relative pronouns :i 'He died in the house zvJiere 
[=in which] he was born/ As Relatives they are 
equivalent to 'whaf and ' which ^ with prepositions. The 
adverbial relatives are of great use in varying the language 
of composition. 

The same adverb, it should be understood, may require 
different classifications in different connections: 

He never will submit. 

The Lord is king, be the people never so impatient. 

It will sometimes happen that a word has clearly a 

' See Bain's English Grammar, p. 25; also Wiitney's Essentials of English 
Grammar, p. 78. 



64 LESSORS IN EN'GLISH GRAMMAR. 

double character, and we have then to consider which, if 
either, of its uses is principal: 

(1) He sat next. 

(2) He stood firm. 

(3) He went away sorrowing. 

(4) He rode seated between two officers. 

(5) ^ow jocund did they drive their team! 

The qualifying force in (1) and (2) seems to be about 
equally distributed between subject and verb; in (3), (4), 
and (5) there would appear to be a chief reference to the 
manner of the action. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Distinguish between ' we feel ivarm ' and * we feel warmly.^ 

2. Make sentences in which each of the following expressions shall 

be used as two or more parts of speech, one in every case being 
an adverb. Give the sub-class : 

out only 

ill there 

far away 

very in no respect 

well by all means 

before beyond all doubt 

much when he came 

little if he will go 

enough where she was so happy 

below so, as 

3. Classify the adverbs into normal and abnormal, and give the 

sub-class : 

(1) They rejected, with contempt, the ceremonious homage 
which other sects substituted for the pure worship of 
the soul. 

(3) He understood by their signs that they wished to be in- 
formed whence he came, 



PAKTS OF SPEECH — ADVEKBS CLASSIFIED. 65 

(3) She herself drew the design of that monument with her 

own hand, and left it with me when she went away. 

(4) Cowper said, fifty or sixty years ago, that he dared not 

name John Buynan in his verse, for fear of causing a 
sneer. 

(5) We live in better times. 

(6) Admirable as the natural world is for its sublimity and 

beauty, who would compare it, even for an instant, with 
the sublimity and beauty of the moral world? 

(7) When life begins, like a distant landscape, gradually to 

disappear, the mind can receive no solace but from its 
own ideas and reflections. 

(8) Not many generations ago, where you now sit encircled 

with all that exalts and embellishes civilized life, the 
rank thistle nodded in the wind and the wild fox dug 
his hole unscared. 

(9) After this bustle of preparation, and amid the silence which 

follows it, Henry Brougham takes a slow and hesitating 
step toward the table, where he stands crouched to- 
gether, his shoulders pulled up, his head bent forward, 
and his upper lip and nostril agitated by a tremulous 
motion, as if he were afraid to utter even a single sen- 
tence. 

(10) It seems easier to do right to-rnorrow than to-day, merely 

because we forget that, when to-morrow comes, then will 
be now. 

(11) During her wane, while inferior luminaries were brighten- 

ing around her, he was growing fainter and smaller 
every evening. 



CHAPTEE XIII. 

PARTS OF SPEECH — PREPOSITIONS CLASSIFIED. 

Prepositions are connecting words used to indicate 
the relation of a noun, or its equivalent, to something else. 
They are so named because they were originally prefixed 
to the verb to modify its meaning, as in '^ for- swear/ 

They were first local, indicating rest or motion; as 
'in/ 'on/ 'at/ 'hj/ Ho/ Hnto/ Hrom/ ''under/ 'be- 
hind/ 'between,' 'among,' 'upon,' 'off,' 'above,' 'for' 
(meaning 'before'), etc. 

By degrees they came to denote the relations of time, 
as well as of place; as 'since,' 'till,' 'until,' 'during,' 
'pending,' 'after,' 'in a year/ 'by Christmas,' 'near six 
o'clock,' 'witliin the week,' etc. 

Then they were further extended to denote other rela- 
tions: agency a.nd instnimentality, as 'by,' 'through,' 
'with'; end and reason, as 'far,' 'from'; reference, as 
'a work on grammar,' ' I sing 0/ war,' ' touching this mat- 
ter'; possession, as 'the book 0/ the scholar' [== the 
scholar's book] ; material as ' a crown of gold ' [ = golden 
crown]; exclusion as 'none but him,' 'save one,' 'all 
except John,' 'without,' 'besides,' etc. 

Many phrases are conveniently, though not always log- 
ically, treated as prepositions. Such are — 

as far in spite of out of 

as to according to from out of 

66 



PAETS OF SPEECH — PREPOSITIONS CLASSIFIED. 6? 

by means of in accordance with instead of 

in point of for the sake of along side 

in respect of because of as regards 

in case of by way of by virtue of 

The parts of such phrases, when possible, should be classi- 
fied separately. 

Frequently, especially in poetry, the object precedes 

the preposition: 

(1) What did you come for? 

(2) Look the whole world over. 

(3) I must use the freedom [that] I was born with. 

(4) This is the will [that] I told you of. 

Sometimes, as in (3) and (4), the object is omitted. 

A prepositional complement sometimes enters into the 
structure of a verb-term as an organic constituent: 

His zeal was wondered at. 

The case shall be attended to. 

We have a peculiar character to keep up. 

The important thing in these exercises, is to be able to 
point out the object, to what it is joined, and for what pur- 
pose. The relations expressed are (1) adjective, when the 
preposition unites its object to a noun or pronoun; (2) 
adverbial, when it unites its object to a verb, adjective, or 
adverb. 

EXERCISES. 

1, Write sentences in which you use a prepositional phrase to limit 

the application of a noun, a pronoun, a verb, a verbal, and an 
adjective. 

2. Embody these phrases in sentences, and classify the prepositional 

phrase : 

accuse of change for offensive to 

inquire of change to prejudice against 

inquire for change into share in 



die by- 


share of 


die of 


taste for 


insist upon 


taste of 


die for 


fall under 


believe 


fall into 



C8 LESSORS IK Eiq^GLISH GRAMMAR. 

call on 
call at 
differ from 
agree with 
conversant witn 
3. Classify the italicized parts : 

(1) He runs about. 

(2) He runs about the house. 

(3) That was done long since. 

(4) That was done since yesterday. 

(5) He will come, since he always keeps his promises, 

(6) He will do this, for he promised. 

(7) He will do this for the sake of his promise, 

(8) He will do this for his promise' sake. 

(9) The Normans were superior in point of learning. 

(10) The Normans were superior in point of learning. 

(11) He stabbed him from behind. 

(12) He laughed a,t me. 

(13) 'Tis all the joy I can hope for. 

(14) I swear that no one was to blame but me. 

(15) Before then she had been a washer- woman. 

(16) He came from [a place] beyond the seas. 

(17) It was sold for under-lialf-its vahie. 

(18) The mountain trembles from on-high. 

(19) He was well until quite recently. 

(20) The hare scoffed at the tortoise for his slowness, and chal- 

lenged him to a race. 'Let us run,' said she, 'up to 
yonder rock, and you shall have a start of half a mile.' 
*Done,' said the tortoise, and off he plodded. The hare 
sat down to watch him, and laughed till her sides ached. 
At last, tired with laughing, she fell asleep. Meantime, 
the tortoise had crept up the hill and was steadily ap- 
proaching the goal. Now, too late, the hare awoke from 
her sleep, and dashed after him with all her speed ; and 
indeed — so swift was she — she nearly overtook him. 
But, before she had reached the top, the tortoise was 
up on the rock, waiting for the prize. 



CHAPTER XIV. 

PARTS OF SPEECH — CONJUNCTIONS CLASSIFIED. 

The primary and ordinary use of Conjunctions is to 
unite sentences: 

(1) Day ends, and night begins. 
(3) He did not speak, hut he fought. 

(3) I will come when I am at leisure. 

(4) He will succeed because he is in earnest. 

Each sentence of (1) has the value of a separate asser- 
tion — ^ Day ends/ '^ Night begins.^ The same is true of 
those in (2) — ^He did not speak/ ^He fought.^ Such 
sentences are said to be Go-ordinative. The word means 
'^of equal order or rank.^ In (3), the second sentence 
defines the time of coming: it means the same as ^at my 
leisure/ and is thus equivalent to an adverb of time, quali- 
fying ^will come.'' The second sentence of (4) is an ad- 
verb of cause or reason, modifying ^will succeed.' It 
serves merely to explain or describe the first statement, 
so may be said to be a serva?it to it. Such sentences 
(clauses, we have called them) are Subordinative, that 
is, ^of under order or rank.' 

Instead of saying ^He went,' ^I went,' or ^It is impor- 
tant if it is true,' we can use the shorter forms — 

He and I went. 

It is important if true. 



70 LESSORS IK ENGLISH GRAMMA K. 

Thus, while conjunctions commonly unite sentences, 
both classes — the co-ordinative in particular — are used 
to connect words. In case of the subordinative, however, 
the fact of an omission of what might be and generally is 
expressed, is more distinctly felt, and the conjunction must 
be understood as joining really a dependent sentence. 

The true test of the character of a conjunction is, Does 
it join parts of the same or of different rank? Thus, in 
the following, the parts, though subordinate in themselves 
(that is, with respect to what they modify), are co-ordinate 
with respect to each other: 

A diligent and prudent man will be successful. 
The music that you heard, and with which you were so delight- 
ed, is one of Wagner's compositions. 

Conjunctions, then, are — 

1. Co-ordinative; those that join parts independent 
of one another. The sub-classes are: , 

(1) Copulative; such as unite parts whose meaning adds 
to, or accords with, what precedes; as 'and,^ 'also,^ 'like- 
wise,' 'too,' 'not only but,' 'moreover,^ 'be- 
sides,' 'now,' 'well,' 'first,' 'secondly.' 'And'- is the 
most important — it unites, and does no more. The rest 
are adverbs, having the same effect of union, but with ad- 
ditional shades of meaning. 

(2) Alternative; those that offer or refuse a choice; as 

'or,' 'nor,' 'either,' 'neither,' 'else,' 'either 

or,' etc. 

(3) Correlative; pairs of the foregoing; so called be- 
cause one calls for, and answers to, the other: ' either . . 

. . . or,' 'neither nor,' 'both and,' 

'not only but,' 'whether ..... or/ 



PARTS OF SPEECH — COi^JUKCTIOI^S CLASSIFIED. 71 

(4) Adversative; those that imply something adverse or 
opposed to what precedes; as '\)ui/ 'yet/ 'however/ 'still/ 
'nevertheless/' and (rarely) 'only/ The first of these is 
chief. Its characteristic meaning is suggested by its Anglo- 
Saxon form b - ut - an = be - ut - an = be + ut (out). It is 
a very forcible word. 

(5) Illative; those expressing inference or conclusion; 
as ' then/ ' hence/ ' therefore/ ' thus/ ' so/ ' consequently/ 
'accordingly.' 'Therefore' occurs oftenest, and is the 
type of the class. 

2. Subordinative ; those that join modifying parts to 
the part modified. The commonest of this class are con- 
junctions of — 

(1) Place; as 'where/ 'whence'': 

I live where sunshine is perpetual. 

(2) Time; as 'when/ 'as/ 'while/ 'until/ 'before/ 
' ere/ ' since/ ' after/ etc. : 

He died as [or while] he was on his way to Washington. 
It has been done siiice you were here. 

(3) Cause and reason; as 'for/ ' since/ ' as/ ' because/ 
' inasmuch as/ ' for as much as ': 

I will resume my seat, for I can not be heard. 

As [or since'l 1 can not be heard, I will resume my seat. 

(4) Condition; as ' if / 'unless/ 'except/ 'provided/ 
' although/ ' albeit ': 

You will be saved if \ov provided'] you repent. 
Except [or unless] you repent, you will perish. 

(5) Purpose or result; as 'that/ 'in order that/ 'lest/ 
'so that.' 'Lest' denotes the purpose or result to be 
avoided : 



7^ LESSOi^S IN" EI^"GLISH GRAMMAR. 

He died that we might live. 

He shouted till [or so iliat^ the woods rang. 

They set a strong guard lest he should escape. 

(6) Comjmrison: ^as/ ''than.^ Thus — 

He is as tall as 1 [am tall]. 
He is taller than 1 [am tall]. 

The pupil should guard against the use of the adverb 
* like " for the conjunction ' as/ to express similarity: 

Do this Ul:e [as] I do. 

Nobody will miss her like [as] I shall. 

(7) Substantive; any of the preceding, and especially 
'that/ when introducing a substantive clause: 

I asked ivhen I should go. 
He said tliat he would go. 
That he will go is certain, 
I know where you are going, and how you will do it. 

(8) Relative; relative pronouns and adverbs: 

The time that you name is satisfactory. 

The time at which he will go is uncertain. 

The time when [or place whe7'e'\ he will go is uncertain. 

Where he goes, there go I. 

^5 ye sow, so shall ye reap. 

As to conjunctive phrases (^as if/ ^ as soon as/ ^so as/ 
'so far as/ ^ no sooner than/ etc.), the words forming them 
should be considered separately whenever this is possible. 

Only a few of the so-called conjunctions are used solely 
as such, — ''and,' '^or,^ 'nor,^ ''lest/ 'than.^ Even the 
last is treated as a preposition in such expressions as 'than 
whom there is no better.^ The different sub-classes, too, 
shade into one another, the same conjunction having a 
variety of offices. Thus: 



PARTS OF SPEECH — COKJUNCTIOKS CLASSIFIED. 73 

(1) So you are late again, as usual. 

(2) He did it as quickly as he could. 

(3) He was appointed as general. 

(4) He did it as you have done it. 

(5) As we are at leisure, let us enjoy ourselves. 

In (1), '^as^ is a relative pronoun; in (2), it is first an 
adverb of degree, then a relative adverb; in (3), it is re- 
dundant — useless; in (4), it is a pure conjunction, intro- 
ducing a modal clause; in (5), it introduces a clause of 
reason. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Make a sentence in which each of these words shall be used as 

three or more parts of speech, two of which shall be conjunc- 
tion and preposition — 

but before for 

since till except 

besides after notwithstanding 

2. Use ' whence, * since, ' and ' that, ' in two or more sub-classes. 

3. Use each of the following as two or more parts of speech, one of 

which shall be conjunction, and none of which shall be prepo- 
sition — 



so 


yet 


if 


now 


ere 


when 


then 


still 


where 


also 


that 


however 



4. Give the class and sub-class of the italicized parts — 

(1) As I looked up, I saw the man before me. 

(2) God shall help her, and that right early. 

(3) If he do so bleed, 

I'll gild the faces of the grooms withal, 
For it must seem to be their guilt. 

(4) Awake, arise, or be forever fallen ! 



74 LESS02SrS IK EKGLISH GRAMMAE. 

(5) But thou 
Revisit'st not these eyes . . , 
Yet not the more cease I to wonder. 

(6) We have no slaves at home — then why abroad? 

(7) His face did shine as the sun. 

(8) He was of poor hut honest parents. 

(9) In spite of all that you say, I still believe it. 

(10) He argued as if the world were about to end. 

(11) Then he returned. Well you know what followed next. 

(12) But I saw nothing hut the long valley of Bagdad. 

5. Pick out the conjunctions and conjunctive words, give the class 
and sub-class, and, in the case of subordinative conjunctions, 
tell of what part of speech the clause is: 

Long ago, when people used to worship many gods, a carter 
was striving to make his way with a heavily-loaded wagon 
through a miry lane. The horses did their best, but the 
wagoner, who did not wish to take more trouble than he 
could help, was content to sit upon the wagon and let the 
horses carry him while he cracked his whip and sang songs. 
Presently the road began to rise, but still the wagoner kept 
his seat. Soon they came to a place where a torrent seemed 
to have dashed across the road, wearing a deep pit with its 
waters. The horses put forth all their strength to pull the 
wagon across, but in vain ; all their efforts could not even 
move the wheels, which began to sink deeper into the pit. 
Now when it was too late to do anything, the good-for- 
nothing carter got down from his wagon ; but all that he did 
was to curse and swear at the horses. Finding that cursing 
did not move the wagon, he at last thought he would try 
what praying could do. So, falling on his knees, he be- 
sought Hercules, the god of hard work, to come and held 
him in his troubles. In an instant Hercules was on the spot ; 
but, instead of helping him, 'You lazy fellow, ' said he, 'how 
dare you send for me till you have tried to do without me? 
Learn that Hercules helps none but those that are willing to 
help themselves.' 



CHAPTEE XV. 

PARTS OF SPEECH — INTERJECTIONS CLASSIFIED. 

Interjections are words or cries that express a strong 
or sudden feeling. They are a part of speech in the sense, 
not of a modifier (though they do intensify or otherwise 
aifect the statement), but of a means of expression not 
wholly unlike a scream, a groan, a sigh. They are classed 
according to the emotion expressed, which may be — 

(1) Joy; as 'oh, ^ *^ ah,' 'ha, ^ ^ huzza,' ^hurrah.' 

(2) Sorrow ; as ' oh,' ' ah,' ' alas,' ' well-a-day,' ' dear 



me.' 



(3) Contempt and Disapproval; as 'fie,' 'fy,' 
'poh,' 'faugh,' 'fudge,' 'foh,' 'pish,' 'pshaw,' 'pooh,' 
*tush,' 'tut,' 'whew,' 'avaunt.' 

(4) Superior Curiosity; as 'heigh,' 'hey,' 'eh,' 
'oho,' 'ha-ha.' 

Still other uses are those of — 

(5) Calling attention ; as 'lo,' 'ho,' 'halloo,' 'hem,' 
'hoy,' 'ahoy,' 'whoa,' 'haw.' 

(6) A call to silence ; as ' hist,' ' hush,' ' tut,' ' mum.' 

(7) G-reeting and Parting; as 'hail,' 'welcome,' 
' adieu,' ' good-bye.' 

Most interjections are founded upon grammatical words, 
and certain grammatical words may stand as interjections 

75 



76 LESSOKS m EKGLISH GKAMMAR. 

in an occasional way without permanently changing their 
nature. Thus: 

Indeed = in deed := in reality. 
Hallelujah = 'praise ye the Lord.' 
Alas = ah lasso = ' miserable.' 
dear=0 dieu='0 God.' 
Good-bye = God V ivi* ye = ' God be with you. ' 
Hail = Anglo-Saxon wes thu hal = ' be thou hale ' = ' be 
whole.' 

Clearer examples of nouns^ verbs, adverbs, and adjec- 
tives lapsing into the interjectional state may be seen in 
^ shame/ ^farewell/ ^soft/ ^hark/ ^behold/ 'why/' 
^what/ *^well/ '^woe^s the day.^ 

EXEBCISES. 

Give the class and (when there is such) sub-class of italicized parts: 

1. You like this, Zifi^/-^ 

2. Away I I prithee leave me ! 

3. What! is great Mephistopheles so passionate? 

4. ye judges! it was not by human counsel .... 

that this event has taken place. 

5. Tush! tush! 'twill not again appear. 

6. But hark! he strikes the golden lyre. 

7. What the mischief can he be doing? 

8. Good heavens! can virtue live in such a place ? 

9. The ayes were declared to have it amidst the loud hurrahs. 

10. He pooh-poohed all their y^i^oes. 

1 1 . Oh, what a fall was there, my countrymen ! 

12. Why, do you think him false? 

13. Why he spared me I knew not. 

14. Forget! forget! Is this thine only word? 

1 5. Good day, old friend ! and so you have returned. 

16. Hush and be mute, or else our spell is marred. 



OHAPTEE XYI 

PARTS OF SPEECH — INFLECTION OF NOUNS. 

Some words, you may have noticed, change their form 
to express a change of use. Thus ' The tree falls " becomes 
' the trees fall ' when the word ' tree ' is required to denote 
more than one; and this change requires a corresponding 
change in the verb from ^ falls ^ to ^fall.^ 'The tree falls ^ 
becomes 'The tree fell/ to indicate that the act of falling 
is not now going on, but took place in some time gone by. 
^He struck me' becomes '/ struck him/ to indicate that 
the one who inflicted the stroke in the first case, endures 
the stroke in the second. Compare 'I met Eobert, who 
had grown to be six feet high,^ with, 'I met Eobert, whom 
I recognized at once.'' Similar changes are: 'speak,' 
'speakest'; 'John,' 'Johns's'; 'wise,' 'wiser,' 'wisest.' 

This change in the form of a word, either to denote a 
change of meaning or to adapt it to be used along with the 
different forms of other words, is called Inflection. The 
name (Latin inflectere) means 'bent into shape.' The 
change itself is brought about sometimes by a change 
made in the word ('one m^n,' 'two men'); sometimes by 
adding an initial word ('m«?^-servant,' 'maz^Z-servant'); 
sometimes by the substitution of what seem to be, or really 
are, wholly different words ('am,' 'was,' 'I,' 'we'); but 
mostly by adding a final letter or syllable ('lion,' lion-e^s'). 

77 



78 LESSONS IK ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The additions are often spoken of as (1) prefixes, (2) end- 
ings or suffixes. English, having lost the greater part of its 
endings^ supplies their place by distinct words. Thus, 

Anglo-Saxon wulf-es = of a wolf or a wolf's 
wulf-e = to or for a wolf 
drinc-a?i = to drink 
drinc-e = I drink 
gset-e = she-goa,t 

The simplest form of the inflected word is called the 
base, theme, or stem. 

Nouns are inflected to mark Gender, Number, and Case. 

I. All animals, many plants, have sex; and names 
that distinguish them with regard to sex, have gender, i 
Names for objects of the male sex are of the Masculine 
gender, as ^king^; for objects of the female sex, of the 
Feminine gender, as ^ queen. ^ Names of objects without 
sex are Neuter, as ^silver,' ^oak,^ ^ bread. ^ 

A noun that is applicable to either male or female, is 
said to be of the Common gender, as ''parent,^ 'child.^ 
In actual usage, however, the customary masculine name 
includes the feminine, as ^man^ (in its broad sense), 
^ horse,' ^dog'; or the usual feminine name may be used 
to include masculine. Thus ^ goose' and *^duck,' which 
were originally feminine, do>v acceptable duty for ^gander' 
and ^ drake,' and so become, of common gender. When 
the idea of intelligence is not prominent, when the sex 
is unknown or unimportant, the name is generally treated 
as neuter, and we may say: 

It is a beautiful bird. 

1 French genre, Latin genus, kind. 



PAETS OF SPEECH — INFLECTIOiq^ OF NOUNS. 79 

A little child, dear brother Jim, 

That lightly draws its breath, 
And feels its life in every limb, 

"What should it know of death? 

If we wish, on occasion, to mark the sex, we prefix 
some adjective word, as ^ male-bird,^ '^she-bear/ Inani- 
mate and irrational things, on the other hand, are some- 
times personified — that is, are spoken of as if they were 
persons, and therefore of the masculine or feminine gender: 
Charity seeketh not her own. 

Love in my bosom like a bee 
Doth suck his sweet. 

Personification is in our language striking, because 
unusual; whereas in Latin, Greek, French, and German, 
where nouns are masculine or feminine regardless of the 
sex of the object signified, the ascription of gender to 
things inanimate produces no effect on the mind. A Ger- 
man speaks of his spoon as he, of his fork as she, and of 
his knife or wife as it. 

The gender of nouns, when shown in their form, is 
expressed : 

1 . By a prefix signifying the sex, thus making what is 
called a compound word: 

Ae-goat s^e-goat 

man wo-man [=: wife-mabvi\ 

man-khi^. woman-'kmdi 

2. By the use of distinct words, distinct in appearance 
or in fact:^ 

1 True inflection being a change in the form of a word, the use of adjec- 
tives and distinct words to mark gender is no real inflection, but rather a sub- 
stitute for it. 



80 



LESSOKS IIN^ ENGLISH GRAMMAE. 



MASCULINE. 


FEMININE. 


MASCULINE. 


FEMININE. 


bachelor 


maid 


horse 


mare 


boy- 


girl 


husband 


wife 


brother 


sister 


king 


queen 


bull 


cow 


lord 


lady 


cock 


hen 


man 


woman 


colt 


filly 


monk 


nun 


drake 


duck 


nephew 


niece 


earl 


countess 


papa 


mamma 


father 


mother 


ram 


ewe 


gander 


goose 


sir 


madam 


gentleman 


lady 


son 


daughter 


hart 


roe 


uncle 


aunt 


3. By suffixes^ ess, ix, 


en, in, ine, ster 


, er: 


MASCULINE. 


FEMININE. 


MASCULINE. 


FEMININE. 


abbot 


abbess 


instructor 


instructress 


actor 


actress 


Jew 


Jewess 


baron 


baroness 


lad 


lass 


benefactor 


benefactress 


lion 


lioness 


chanter 


chantress 


marquis 


marchioness 


count 


countess 


master 


mistress 


czar 


czarina 


mayor 


mayoress 


dauphin 


dauphiness 


negro 


negress 


deacon 


deaconess 


patron 


patroness 


director 


directrix 


peer 


peeress 


duke 


duchess 


poet 


poetess 


emperor 


empress 


priest 


priestess 


enchanter 


enchantress 


prince 


princess 


executor 


executrix 


prophet 


prophetess 


founder 


foundress 


protector 


protectress 


giant 


giantess 


shepherd 


shepherdess 


god 


goddess 


songster 


songstress 


governor 


governess 


sorcerer 


sorceress 


heir 


heiress 


tiger 


tigress 


hero 


heroine 


tutor 


tutoress 


host 


hostess 


viscount 


viscountess 



PARTS OF SPEECH — li^ELECTIOif OE NOUJS^S. 81 

The tendency is to disregard the distinctive marks of 
gender in the use of many common words; ^ authoress,^ 
^poetess/ for instance, are now nearly obsolete. 

Ess, of Norman-French origin, and attached mostly to 
words so derived, is the suffix most extensively employed. 
To make the pronunciation easier, the vowel of the mascu- 
line may be changed, as ^ mistress,^ for ^masteress.'' Ster, 
as a feminine sign, survives only in ^ spinster ' and ' foster- 
mother'' (=: food-ster mother). The Saxon and French 
endings are combined in '^ seam-str-ess ^ and '^song-str-ess.'* 
Sometimes it implies merely depreciation or contempt, as 
in ^youngster,' ^ trickster.^ ^Vix-en/ feminine of ^fox,"* is 
the one remaining instance of an inflectional ending once 
common. Er is used to form the masculine from the 
feminine in ^widow-er.' * Sultan,^ ^Sultana," ^signore,^ 
^signora,^ ^infante,'' ^infanta,'' illustrate a mode of forming 
the feminine in words of foreign origin. 

II. NTimber-fornis distinguish the object of thought 
in respect to number: Singular, one; Plural, more than 
one. The plural is formed — 

1 . By internal change : 

Singular. Plural. 

man =0. E. ^ mmi men = 0. E. men 

foot = 0. E. fot feet — 0. E. fet 

goose = 0. E. gos geese = 0. E. ges 

tooth =0. E. toth teeth = 0. E. ife7/i 

mouse = 0. E. mus mice = 0. E. mys 

2. By the suffix en, with or without other changes: 
ox oxen = oxan (0. E.) 

child children = cildru (0. E.), cTiildre. 

brother | ^fethren [ = ^^^^^^'^ ^^- ^'^> ^^'^^^^' 

^ O, E. stands for Old English (Anglo-Saxon). 



82 



LESSOJ^S IN ENGLISH GEAMMAK. 



3. According to the rules of the language from which 
the noun is taken: 



Singular. 


Plural. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


formula 


formulae 


stratum 


strata 


nebula 


nebulae 


criterion 


criteria 


tumulus 


tumuli 


basis 


bases 


radius 


radii 


axis 


axes 


animalculum 


animalcula 


focus 


foci 


datum 


data 


appendix 


appendices 


medium 


media 


vortex 


vortices 


phenomenon 


phenomena 


seraph 


seraphim 



4. Eegularly, by the suffix es, which in many words 
coalesces with the final syllable of the singular, and appears 
as merely s: 

(1) When the singular ends in a sibilant or palatal 
sound fs, z, X, sh, cli, j ), there must be, for ease of pro- 
nunciation, a vowel to break the articulation of the 
hissing consonants, and the fuller form is retained; 
'dish,^ ^ dishes^; ''kiss," kisses'; ''box,' boxes'; ^church,' 
' churches ' ; ^ prize, ' ^ prizes. ' The s is here pronounced as z. 

(2) By a caprice of spelling, some nouns ending in o; 
nouns ending in y following a consonant and changing 
into i; nouns ending in / (ff ) following a long vowel and 
changing/ into v, — add es, though it is not pronounced 
as a distinct syllable : ''negro,' ^negroes'; ^ story,' "stories"; 
^ thief,' "thieves.' 

(3) Other nouns — and these are the great majority — 
add only s to the singular: "hat/ "hats'; "hoe,' "hoes'; 
"fee,' "fees.' The rules for pronunciation are: 

(a) When the noun ends in a sharp mute, p, t, k, o, th (in thin), 
the 's' has its sharp sound (as in 'sea'); 'caps,' 'tacks,' 
' cakes, ' ' safes, ' ' coughs. ' 



PARTS OF SPEECH — INFLECTION OF NOUNS. 83 

(5) When the noun ends in ng, in a flat mute, h, v, d, g, fh 
(in 'the^), or in a liquid, I, m, n, r, or in any vowel 
sound, — the 's' has its flat sound of z; 'songs,' ' days,' 
'eyes,' 'cares,' 'pews,' 'grottos.' This is a necessity of 
pronunciation, resulting from our inability to pronounce 
with ease, or pleasure, a sharp and a flat mute together. 

In the oldest English, there were several plural end- 
ings, as, an, a, n. The first of these changing to es 
after the Norman Conquest, is now the only living suffix. 
As far as the spoken language is concerned it is per- 
haps more correct to say that the plural is formed by 
adding s (or z) to the singular. 

5. Letters and figures, and words used merely as 

words, generally require an apostrophe ( ' ) before the 

plural sign s : 

Dot your i^s and cross your fs. 

He employs too many o^'s and me's. 

6. When a foreign word passes into common use, the 
tendency is to adopt the English plural: 'formula,^ for- 
mulas,^ '^ index, "^ '^indexes,'' 'genius,^ ^ geniuses.^ 

7. Sometimes there are two plurals with separate mean- 
ings: ^index,^ 'indexes" (to a book), 'indices" (algebraic 
signs); 'genius," 'geniuses" (men of power), 'genii" 
(spirits); 'die," 'dies" (stamps for coining), ^ dice ^ (for 
gaming). 

8. Some nouns have the same form in both numbers; 
as 'deer," 'sheep," 'fish" (also 'fishes"). 

9. Material, abstract, and proper nouns are rarely used 
except in the singular. When, however, there are differ- 
ent qualities of the same material ('sugars," 'wines"); or 
particular varieties of the quality ('virtues," 'beauties"); 



84 LESSONS IK ENGLISH GEAMMAR. 

or several persons either bearing the same name or resem- 
bling the one to whom the name belongs (^the Smiths/ 
^the Miltons of our century ^)^ — such nouns take the plu- 
ral form. 

10. On the contrary some nouns are used in the plural 
only; as 'vitals/ ''annals/ 'nuptials/ 'shears/ 'tongs.^ 

1 1 . With a numeral, the plural sign is often omitted, 
as 'ten sail/ 'a three-foot rule.' 

12. Compound nouns^ add the plural sign to the prin- 
cipal noun, or noun described, unless (1) the parts are so 
closely allied that the meaning is incomplete till the whole 
is known; or (2) unless the suffix has, from long use, sunk 
into an insignificant appendage, as ^sons-in-law/ 'house- 
tops/ ^goings-out/ ' hlack-b irds/ 'merchantme^z," ^Ted- 
coats'; but 'handfuls,' 'forget-me-nots,' 'runaways.' 
' The Miss Browns ' implies separate action; ' the Misses 
Brown ' has a collective effect, and is the usual form. 

III. Case-form shows the bearing or relation of a 
noun to some other word in the sentence. 

1. When a noun is the subject of a sentence, it is said 
to be in the Nonmiative case. So called because it names 
the person or thing that does or suffers the action stated 
by the verb; as 'Robert sings,' 'the song was sung.' 

2. When a noun stands for the object spoken to or 
addressed, it is said to be in the Vocative (or calling) case; 
as, 'Our Father, who art in heaven.' 

3. When a noun stands for the object of an action or 
is the object of a preposition, it is said to be in the Objec- 
tive case; as 'Eobert sang the song/ 'He came from Lon- 
don.' The objective is — 

^ Names formed of several parts. 



PARTS OF SPEECH — IKPLECTIOK OP KOUNS. 85 

(1) Direct, when it denotes the object that directly receives 

the action of the verb ; as ' The cannon's roar the death- 
like silence broke.' 

(2) Indirect, when it denotes the object that indirectly receives 

the action ; as ' Give John the book ' [= Give the book 
to John] ; ' He made the man a coat ' [= He made a 
coat /or the man]. 1 

4. When a noun denotes possession or appurtenance, 
it is in ih.Q Possessive Q,2i^^Q. The possessive is formed — 

(1) By adding 's to singulars, and to such plurals as do not 

end in s: 'the hoy''s knife.' Nouns of more than one 
syllable, however, with a sibilant ending, omit the pos- 
sessive s in order to avoid the disagreeable repetition of 
hissing sounds; as 'for conscience' sake,' 'the princess' 
letter.' The weight of usage is in favor of such forms 
as 'James's,' 'Charles's,' 'Prince's,' 

(2) For a similar reason, plurals ending in s add, as a sign to 

the eye, the apostrophe only: 'the ladies' bonnets,' 
'the cats' tails.' 

(3) In compounds, and in phrase-names, the sign is added at 

the end; as 'the son-in-law's house,' 'the king of Eng- 
land's crown,' ' This is Tennyson the poet's house.'^ 

(4) In a series of words denoting common possession the sign 

may be added to the last only: 'Robert and Harry'' s 
boat.' But 'She was her father^ s, mothefs, and sister'' s 
idol.' Separate possession requires the sign to be re- 
peated: ' Roherfs and Harry'' s boats.' 

The possessive sign follows the same rule as the plural 
with regard to being sounded as s or z, and to forming 
an additional syllable; as ^ship^s/ '^day^s/ '^ Jameses/ 
'' churches. ^ 

* In Latin and Old English we should call the direct object the Accusative, 
and the indirect the Dative. 

2 Better, however; 'This is the house of the poet Tennyson,' or 'This is 
the house of Tennyson the poet.' 



86 



LESSORS IN EKGLISH GBAMMAB. 



This s is the remnant of a syllable es (afterward 
written '^ is '), one of several modes of forming the posses- 
sive case singular, or genitive, in earlier English, and is 
now usually distinguished from the ending of the nomi- 
native plural by an apostrophe. '^Apostrophe ^ means 
turned aicay, and shows that something has been omitted. 
The real omission is the letter e. 

English nouns have now but one inflection for case. 
The uses of words are the same as they were a thousand 
years ago, but there has come down to us only one case- 
form — the possessive. 



Singular. 
Nom. hlaford, 
Gen. hlaford-es, 
Dat. hlaford-e, 
Ace. hlaford, 
Voc. hlaford, 
Inst.i hlaford-^, 



OLD ENGLISH. MODERN ENGLISH. 

Plural. Singular. Plural. 

hlaford-as. Nom. lord, lords, 

hlaford-a. Poss. of lord, or lord's, lords', 

hlaford-'wm. I. Obj.^ [to or for] lord, lords, 

hlaford-as. D. Obj.^ lord, lords, 

hlaford-as. Voc, [0] lord, lords, 

hlaford-wm. [by or with] lord, lords. 



The diagram used by the old grammarians to illustrate 
case-inflection explains the meaning of several terms em- 
ployed in this connection : 




A line N, moving about the point or hinge 0, was 
supposed to fall or be bent downward from the perpendicu- 
lar position at N to the horizontal position at Ab. The 

» Instrumental. * Indirect objective. ^ Direct objective. 



PARTS OF SPEECH — IKFLECTIOi^ OP NOUKS. 87 

various positions that the line assumed were taken to rep- 
resent the changes that the noun underwent to denote its 
office in the sentence. 

Each change, being denoted by a fall of the perpen- 
dicular, was called a case (Latin cado, I fall). 

The nominative was called the straight case. The 
others — Genitive, Dative, Accusative, Vocative, Ablative 
— were called, in contrast, the oblique cases, being denoted 
by the slanting lines. 

To give a noun these various forms successively was to 
decline it {de, down, and clino, I bend), and the process is 
therefore called Declension. 

EXERCISES. 

1. In what several ways is the masculine form of nouns distinguished 

from the feminine ? 

2. Give five examples of each method of distinguishing gender. 

3. Give ten examples of nouns, five of them ending in er or or, that 

may be applied to either sex. 

4. Give the rules for the formatian of the plural number and posses- 

sive case. Also for the pronunciation of the sign *s.' 

5. Use in sentences the plural form of — 

pony monkey -|- 

shoe salmon mouthful 

solo motto foreman 

potato 6 hanger-on 

man-servants pro and con why- 

Give the rule for the termination. 

6. Correct the following plurals, and give reasons for correction: 

heros stratums cherubims 

dutys flys negros 

calfs cupsful vallies 



88 LESSOKS IK ENGLISH GRAMMAE. 



7. Write the singular of — 




genii data 


crises 


radii foci 


genera 


beaux memoranda 


phenomena 



8. Write the singular and plural possessives of — 

German step-mother wife 

Moses mother-in-law salesman 

David goose empress 

9. Give the gender, number, and case of every noun in — 

'What are you good for, my brave little man? 

Answer that question for me, if you can.' — 

Over the carpet the dear little feet 

Came with a patter to climb on the seat; 

Two merry eyes full of frolic and glee, 

Under their lashes looked up unto me; 

Two little hands, pressing soft on my face, 

Drew me down close in a loving embrace; 

Two rosy lips gave the answer so true, 
'Good to love you, mamma, — good to love you.' 

10. Show what words in the following sentences are in the objective 
case, as objects of action, expressed by transitive verbs in the 
active voice: 

(1) Govern the tongue. 

(2) Men build houses. 

(3) The farmer bought the horse that kicked the man. 

(4) Sheathe your sword. 

(5) The lightning struck the oak. 

(6) The wolf will devour the sheep 

(7) Man praises man. 

(8) Titus destroyed Jerusalem. 

(9) Give the poor man bread. 

(10) Will you lend Thomas a knife to cut his pencil? 



PARTS OF SPEECH — IKPLECTIOK OF KOUKS. 89 

11. Show what words in the following sentences are in the objective 

case, as objects of relation, expressed by a preposition: 

(1) Glad at heart from May to May. 

(2) A lion lay among the bushes at the river-side. 

(3) This author almost places before your eyes the island of 

Britain in the reign of Alfred. 

(4) Never dispute about trifles. 

(5) Look towards the sea. 

(6) Place the chair beside the table. 

(7) Throw a stone over the wall. 

12. Point out the vocative cases in the following sentences : 

(1) You are quite right, Robert. 

(2) Father, will you ask me to return? 

(3) Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your ears. 

(4) This is too hard work, Hardy, to last long. 

(5) England, with all thy faults, I love thee still — my country! 

(6) Plato, thou reasonest well. 

(7) My son, give me thine heart. 

13. Point out the nouns which are different names for the same 

thing; and say to what case they stand in apposition: 

(1) The steamer Chancellor sails every day. 

(2) Coffee comes from Arabia, a country in Asia. 

(3) We have read Cicero the orator's speeches. 

(4) Macaulay was historian, poet, and essayist. 

(5) This landscape is Foster the painter's. 

(6) David slew the insulting giant, proud Goliath, the cham- 

pion of the Philistines. 

(7) The great traveler, Livingstone, explored the Zambesi, 

an African river. 



CHAPTER XXIL 

PARTS OF SPEECH — INFLECTION OF PRONOUNS. 

The Pronouns, as they are the oldest parts of speech, 
have undergone much change, so that they now appear 
very unlike what they were originally. This fact, with 
others, is best shown by a comparison of the ancient in- 
flection of the personal pronouns with their modern forms: 









SINGULAR. 








Nom. 


Ic 


(I) 


thu (thou) he 


(he) 


heo (she) 


hit (it) 


Gen. 


mm 


(mine) 


thin (thy, thine) his 


(his) 


hire (her) 


his (its) 


Dat. 


me 


(me) 


tM (thee) him 


(him 


) hire (her) 


him (it) 


Ace. 


mec 
we 


(me) 
(we) 


thee (thee) hine (him 


) M (her) 


hit (it) 


Nom. 


PLURAL. 

ge (ye) 




Y 

M (they) 




Gen. 


user 


(our) 


eower (your) 




heord (their) 




Dat. 


us 


(us) 


eow (you) 




him (them) 




Ace. 


usic 


(us) 


eowic (you) 




hi (them) 





Thus it appears that I was once written ic (ich). 
Mine and thine were once the only possessives of the 
first and second person. The loss of n brought my into 
use. The second personal singular is now seldom used, 
except in poetical and solemn language. You, once only 
objective plural, has for general use taken the place of the 
old nominatives thou and ye. Note also the dative origin 
of him and her. The partial inflection of the Anglo- 
Saxon definite article will show the origin of she, they, 
etc. : 

90 



PARTS OF SPEECH — IKFLECTIOK OF PROIfOUKS. 91 

SINGULAR. 
MASC. PEM. NEUT. 

se seo thcet 

the sne that 

PLURAL. 
NOM. POSS. DAT. ACC. 

thd thdra ihdm thd 



they their them 

He, heo, hit, was really a demonstrative, like the Latin 
is, ea, id = *that man/ *tliat woman/ ^that thing.' It 
appears, moreover, that the original genitive of it was his. 
Hence Mandeville: 'Of that cytee bereth the contree Ids 
name.' The modern its seems to have been introduced 
about the year 1600. 

The so-called 'possessive pronouns' (my, thy, our, 
etc.) are seen to be nothing but the possessive cases, or 
genitives, of the personals. Ours, yours, hers, and 
theirs are double genitives, containing a genitive plural 
suffix r and a genitive singular suffix s. 

Some of the personals are used adjectively, as ^^ou 
cruel men of Eome.' This is true in particular of the 
possessive cases. Thus: 

(1) Pronominal use — This book is mine, thine, Ms, hers, 

yours, theirs. 

(2) Adjective use — This is my book, his book, her book, 

our book, etc. 

The demonstrative pronouns are at present inflected 
only for number : Singular, this and that ; plural, 
these and those. The Anglo-Saxon demonstrative was 
tJies (masc), theos (fern.), tJiis (neut.). Whence it ap- 



92 LESSONS 11^ E]S"GLISH GRAMMAR. 

pears that our *this^ was originally neuter. '^That* is 
from the neuter of the definite article thcet. ' These ' == 
O.E. thcBs, and * those' = O.E. tlids. 

The interrogative pronouns are best exhibited by the 
ancient inflection of ^who': 



MASC. AND FKM. 


NEUT. 


Nom. 


hwa (who) 


hwset (what) 


Gen. 


hwaes (whose) 


hwaes (whose) 


Dat. 


hwam (whom) 


hwa^m (whom) 


Ace. 


hwone (whom) 


hwaet (what) 


Inst. 


hwi [why] 


hwi [why] 


"What, we 


see, is the neuter 


of "who. It always refers 



to things when used strictly as a pronoun. "Whose is 
the possessive of ^what^ as well as of 'who.'i "Which, 
if substantive, is used of things, but, if adjective, of 
persons or things. 

The relatives, with the exception of ^ that' and ^as,' are 
merely the old interrogatives. Kelative who is inflected 
like interrogative 'who,' — 'whose,' 'whom.' "Which 
at present relates only to neuter antecedents. An early 
instance of the relative use of what is seen in — 

Ne raedde ge thaet hwget David dyde = 
Have ye not read that what David did? 

That, originally a neuter singular, now agrees with singu- 
lar and plural antecedents of all genders. "Who-ever, 
what-ever, which-ever, are relative and interrogative. 

The indefinites, with the exception of 'one,' 'other,' 
and 'another,' are not inflected. Of these, the first and 
second form regular plurals; the first and third, regular 

possessives. 

^ Consequeutly there is nothing to justify the restriction of ' whose ' to 
persons. Compare 'his,' once the possessive of 'he' and 'it.' 



PARTS OF SPEECH — INFLECTION OF PRONOUNS. 93 

Strictly^ person-forms belong only to personal pronouns. 
Nouns are to be considered of the third person, unless 
used vocatively or in apposition with a pronoun of the first 
or second: 

I, Joh7i, am going. 
Thou, John, must go. 

A pronoun^ being a kind of substitute, assumes the 
person, number, and gender of the noun for which it 
stands. Its case i& determined by its relation in the sen- 
tence — the same, however, as the noun would have in its 
place. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Write sentences containing the compound personals — 

itself himself herself myself 

thyself ourselves themselves yourself 

. Tell of what person, number, gender, and case each is, and why. 

2. Look in the dictionary for the meaning of ' self " ; then tell how 

the parts of ' itself,' ' yourselves,' etc., are related. 

3. "Write or find sentences containing the compound^ relatives, and 

explain the person, number, gender, and cas& of -each. 

4. Distinguish between the emphatic and reflexive pronouns; also 

show how they are formed : 

(1) They ruined themselves. (2) I saw myself. (3) You did it 
yourself. (4) I hurt myself. (5) They themselves caused 
the accident. (6) "We taught ourselves grammar. (7) 
The venture paid itself. (8) You injure yourselves. (9) 
The countess herself spoke to me. (10) The men set 
themselves to raise the weight. (11) Cato killed himself. 
(12) We ourselves went to the shore. (13) The ship 
righted herself. 

» See page 43, 



94 LESSORS 11^ ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

5. Point out the relative pronoun and its antecedents in each of the 

following sentences; also tell the number, gender, person, and 

case of the relative pronouns : 
(1) The master who taught me. (2) He fed the cows which 
surrounded him. (3) The boy whose book was lost. (4) 
The staff which Charles used. (5) The freeman whom 
the truth makes free. (6) I who teach you. (7) The 
friend to whom he introduced me. (8) He says what he 
thinks. (9) A religion whose origin is divine. (10) The 
lady and the gentleman whom we met. (11) The horse 
whose leg was broken. (12) The army which was re- 
treating. (13) Think on whatever is honest. (14) The 
house which fell. 

6. Show whether ' that ' is used as a relative, an adjective, or a con- 

junction in the following sentences, stating the reason in each 

instance : 

(1) That is the same man that came yesterday. (2) He wishes 
that he were rich. (3) Androcles and the lion that fol- 
lowed him. (4) It is reported that that ship you named 
is lost. (5) The meekest man that ever lived. (6) That 
lofty tower that crowns the distant hill. (7) Speak, that 
all may hear. (8) That tongue of his that bade the Ro- 
mans. (9) Come, that you may show me that picture 
th^t you say Turner painted. (10) All that wealth e'er 
gave. 

7. In this exercise show when the relative is used to ask questions, 

and supply the antecedent clause left out : 
(1) Who wrote this book? (2) Whose flocks are these? (3) He 
told me to whom he had given the book. (4) To whom do 
we owe allegiance ? (5) From what source springs all our 
woe ? (6) Who that loves flowers would grudge to water 
them? (7) In which city do you prefer to live — Edin- 
burgh or Glasgow? (8) Can he love the whole who loves 
no part? (9) Which is the better likeness? (10) Whom 
have we here? 



PARTS OF SPEECH — INPLECTION OF PRONOUNS. 95 

8. Some of the following are correct, some are incorrect. Explain 
the errors, and make the necessary corrections : 
(1) Among the books are octavoes and quartoes. (3) The cow 
jumped into his brother's Henry's field. (3) The cap- 
tain's of the steamer's wife was sick. (4) They are called 
Methodist's. (5) Nebulas are called star-dust. (6) I saw 
the two Mrs. Clark. (7) The Moses' are few. (8) The 
boy's hat was lost. (9) Him and me are going home. 
(10) It is them. (11) Who did you see? (12) Tell me 
whom is going. (13) Those which are going should be 
prompt. (14) This is the man whom we want. (15) 
Every man should try to do their best. (16) I am the 
man who will do it. (17) He is ours old friend. (18) 
Those what sow will reap. (19) The earth is our mother, 
and we should love it. (20) The dog caught a lamb and 
killed her. (21) This ribbon is her. (22) Did you get 
them forks? (23) I wish I were she. (24) They that are 
faithful he will reward. (25) Who say the people that I 
am. (26) Be sure to tell whom you are. (27) This was 
Casper's and Fannie's book. (28) I dined at Green's my 
old friend and schoolmate's. (29) Wolsey's the Cardi- 
nal's career ended in disgrace. (30) Whom do you sup- 
pose it was? (31) Is she taller than me? (32) She was 
angry, and him too. (33) Did you think it was us ? (34) 
Us boys had a good time. (35) It is neither Casper nor 
Fannie's book. (36) Can you learn from such as her? 
(37) For the king, his brother's sake. 



CHAPTER XYHI 

PARTS OF SPEECH — INFLECTION OF ADJECTIVES. 

Adjectives — except pronoun adjectives — now have 
no inflection to mark gender, number^ and case; that is, 
of whatever gender, number_, or case the noun modified 
may be, no change is made in the form of the adjective: 

A good boy. 

A good girl. 

A good stick. 

Good horses. 

The good die young. 

In such examples as the last, however, in which the 
adjective is used substantively, it is commonly treated as 
plural. 

The adjective is inflected only for comparison — a 
variation of form by which things are compared with one 
another in respect to some common quality possessed in 
in different degrees. The degrees are: 

1. Positive (as in ' great ^); which shows the quality 
of an object without special reference to any other object. 
It is the simplest form of the adjective. 

2. Comparative (as in ''greater^); which shows that, 
of tivo things or sets of things compared, one possesses the 
quality in a higher or lower degree than the other. It is 
formed by adding er to the positive, ^ 



PAETS OF SPEECH — li^FLECTIOl^ OF ADJi;CTIVES. 97 

3, Superlative (as in ^ greatest^); used when more 
than two things are compared. It is formed by adding est 
to the positive. 

(1) When the positive ends in a silent e, r and st only are 

added ; as ' nice, ' ' nice-r, ' * nice-st. ' 

(2) When the positive ends in y (not preceded by a vowel) y 

is changed into i; as 'holy,' 'holi-er,' 'holi-est.' 

(3) A final consonant preceded by a short vowel is usually 

doubled; as 'hot,' 'hot-t-er,' 'hot-t-est.' 

Words of more than two syllables, and most words of 
two, are compared by means of the adverbs more and 
most : ' He is the more learned of the two "*; ' He is the 
most learned of all.'' This makes the pronunciation easier 
and the sound more agreeable. Any adjective may be 
compared in this manner, either to emphasize the quality 
or to please the ear; as ^It is most true.^ 

To express a descending comparison, less and least 
may be used: ''His was the less meritorious painting of 
the two"; ^His was the least meritorious painting of 
all.' Such phrases, however, are not inflections, though 
they express differences of degree. 

Degrees are also expressed by the use of adverbs : 
'rather bad," 'too bad," 'very bad.' 

Some words are irregularly compared: 



Positive. 


Comparative. 


Superlative. 


(1) late 


latter, later 


last, latest 


nigh 


nigher (near) 


nighest, next 


near 


nearer 


nearest 


old 


elder, older 


eldest, oldest 



98 



LESSONS 11^ ENGLISH GEAMMAE. 



Positive. 
(2) good 
bad ) 
ill ) 
little 
much ) 
many ) 

Some words, used now as adjectives, now as adverbs, 
have comparative and superlative forms ending in more 
and most, affixed to the positive or comparative: 



Comparative. 


Superlative. 


better 


best 


worse 


worst 


less (lesser) 


least 


more 


most 



fore 


former 


foremost 


[further] 


furthermore 


furthermost 


in 


inner 


inmost, innermost 


out 


outer 


outmost, outermost 


[ut] 


utter 


utmost, uttermost 


up 


upper 


uppermost 


under 


. . . 


undermost 


hind 


hinder 


hindmost, hindermost 



In a few words of irregular form, the origin and force 
of the comparative have been forgotten, and the words 
have been inflected a second time. Hence the double 
comparatives Cesser ^ (^less^), ^more^ (^mo^), ^nearer/ 
With these may be compared Shakespeare^s rhetorical 
intensives, ^more fairer,' '^most unkindest cut of all/ 

Adjectives expressing qualities that do not admit of 
degrees are not logically comparable :i 



certain 


fluid 


empty 


circular 


perfect 


universal 


dead 


continual 


void 


extreme 


supreme 


yearly 


eternal 


round 


French 



1 Yet, in ordinary talk and in literature, it is not uncommon to compare 
such adjectives as ' certain,' ' round,' and ' perfect,' as expressing approximate 
meanings. 



PAKTS OF SPEECH — INFLECTION OF ADJECTIVES. 99 

The demonstratives ^ this ' and ^ that * are, when adjec- 
tives, inflected for number. The indefinites, ' other ' and 
' another/ when pronouns, are inflected for case and num- 
ber: * for another's sake,^ ^for the sake of others,' 

EXERCISES. 

1. Write the comparison of — 

bright hard plentiful 

wise witty proud 

active sensible angry 

2. Give the descending comparisons of 'little' and 'selfish.' 

3. What parts of speech are ' less,' 'least,' ' more,' ' most,' in — 

Had he been less venturesome he would have lived. 

He was the least diligent in the room. 

He was the more valiant. 

To advance was the most dangerous course. 

Write sentences in which each of these words shall be used as an 
adjective and a noun. 

4. Point out the proper, compound, and verbal adjectives in the 

following : 
(1) Birth-day present. (2) Seven-hilled city. (3) Cornish 
coast. (4) Running stream. (5) April showers. (6) 
Steel pens. (7) Growing corn. (8) Blood-red field. (9) 
British navy. (10) Hazel-eyed Sarah. (11) He wears a 
gold pin in his satin scarf. (12) The rosy-cheeked boy 
swings. (13) Constantine was the first Christian em- 
peror. (14) Cloud-capped towers. (15) The village mur- 
mur rose. (16) He stood on the Alpine brow. (17) 
Half-forgotten recollections crowd upon the mind. (18) 
The flashing mass foams. 

5. Where it is possible, express the comparison in a different way; 

in other instances, show what degree of quality is expressed by 
the adjective; 



100 LESSOKS IN ENGLISH GEAMMAK. 

(1) My uncle is not so wealthy as my father. (2) We heard a 
highly instructive lecture. (3) The French are more 
lively than the English. (4) The fruit is sourish. (5) 
He is not so industrious as he should be. (6) That was 
a very kind action. (7) He was as good as his word. 

(8) He showed greater friendship to me than to you. 

(9) The Indians are extremely indolent. (10) The 
water is brackish. (11) Too warm a coat. (13) Their 
garden is larger than ours. 

6. Express in three different ways the fact that Henry is taller than 

Harry. 

7. Explain the errors in the following (where they are such), and 

make the corrections: 

(1) I don't like those kind of apples. (2) Neither of the four 
racers was very swift. (3) Which of the two is the 
prettier? (4) Put those books on the table. (5) No 
metal is so useful as iron. (6) A more surer punishment. 
(7) Which of the two is the best? (8) Make the line 
more vertical. (9) China is more populous than any 
nation on the globe. (10) I measured it with a two-feet 
rule. (11) The room is ten feet square. (12) Those 
sort of people never prosper. (13) Remove this ashes. 
(14) Profane swearing is the most inexcusable of all 
other vices. ■ (15) Of the two, this is the more preferable. 
(16) He has more enthusiasm than sense. (17) It was 
the less valuable of the six. 



GHAPTEE XIX. 

PARTS OF SPEECH— INFLECTION OF ADVERBS. 

The only inflection of Adverbs is comparison. The 
signification of some does not admit of degrees; as ^now/ 
'^then/ ^here/ ^thirdly/ ^immediately.' Such as can be 
compared^ form a comparative and a superlative degree in 
the manner of adjectives: 

often oftener oftenest 

pleasantly more pleasantly most pleasantly 

pleasantly less pleasantly least pleasantly 

Being usually longer, they more rarely admit the use of 
er and est. A few coincide with the irregular adjectives: 
well better best 



111 


worse 


worst 


much 


more 


most 


forth 


further 


furthest 


far 


farther 


farthest 1 


late 


later 


latest 


[rathe2] 


rather 
EXEBCISES. 


rathest 



1. Write sentences in which at least ten words taken from the list of 
irregular adverbs shall be used as two parts of speech, neither 
of which shall be adverbial. 

'^O.'E.feor.fyrre.fyrrest. The comparative should be 'farrer.' The iA 
has crept in from a false analogy with ' further.' 

^ O. E. hrathe, early. ' Late and rathe.''— Piers Plowman. 

101 



102 LESSONS IK E]S^GLISH GRAMMAR. 

2. Pick out the adverbs, normal and abnormal ; give the sub-class of 

each ; and compare such as admit of comparison : 

(1) We were clearly and particularly shown how the work was 
done. (2) The birds sing sweetly. (3) "We often resolve ; 
we rarely fulfil. (4) Still waters are commonly deepest. 

(5) He has been much deceived. (6) They have been 
long absent. (7) He spoke with a clear voice. (8) They 
showed us the work with much patience. (9) He was 
here yesterday, and will return to-day at two o'clock. 
(10) He labored excessively upon his task ; it was there- 
fore well done. (11) On all occasions she behaved with 
propriety. (12) Mentally and physically we are curiously 
and wonderfully formed. (13) The task is already more 
than half done. (14) First, I am to show the nature, 
and, secondly, the importance of this virtue. (15) I 
shall for that reason warmly befriend him. 

3. Show whether the words in italics are used as adverbs or pre- 

positions : 
(1) The debate went on. (2) Let us go down the river. (3) 
Down, down, they go, the Gael above, Fitz- James below. 
(4) He stamped on the floor. (5) Ice came floating by. 

(6) Tell us about the war. (7) A good south wind 
sprung up behind. (8) He threw the water about. (9) 
The giants piled Ossa above Pelion. (10) Behind the 
horseman sat black Care. (11) Pluck off the golden 
apple. (12) Gunpowder was placed in the cellars below 
the house. (13) Stand by my side. (14) All is lost but 
honor. 

4. In the following sentences point out the conjunctive adverbs, and 

explain their uses : 
(1) I do not know, where the place is. (2) The paper holds 
attention while I read. (3) When the time comes, the 
men will be found where they ought to be. (4) I asked 
not whence he came, or whither he was going. (5) The 
engineer explained how it was done. (6) Whence is it 
ye come ? (7) Whither I go, ye can not come. 



OHAPTEE XX. 

PARTS OF SPEECH — INFLECTION OF VERBS. 

I. VERBALS. 

Because they are so much used in making up the forms 
of the verbj we shall speak first of those derived words 
which we have called verbals. These are of two kinds : 

1, Participle! — a verbal adjective, sharing the prop- 
erties of adjective and verb: 

(1) Present, or Active — the form in ing", which denotes present 

and continuing action or state; as 'sing-ing,' 'giv-ing.' 

(2) Past, or Passive — the forms in ed. and en which usually 

denote completed action ; as 'wish-ed,' 'give-en.' 

2. Infinitive 2 — a verbal noun, merely naming the 
action or state expressed by the verb: 

(1) Present, or Root Infinitive — the simplest form of the verb; 
as 'read,' ' write.' Its usual sign is the preposition to; 
as, '^oread,' 'Rewrite.' 

(3) Participial Infinitive — the form in ing; as, 'read-ing, 

writing.' 
The participial infinitive is identical in form with the 
present participle, but differs from it in having the con- 
struction, not of an adjective, but of a noun; as, *By 
singing, 'birds delight us.' 

* Latin ijar.s, part, and capere, to take. 

-Latin inflnitus, not limited — not limited to a subject, but naming the 
action in an indefinite way. 

103 



104 



LESSORS 11^ ENGLISH GKAMMAK. 



II. AUXILIARIES. 

Our Saxon forefathers never put ' to ' before the infini- 
tive proper. Instead of 'to drink/ for example, they 
would say 'drinc-a^.^ As the suffixes fell into disuse, they 
were replaced by prepositions; and, instead of saying, 'I 
like dirinc-an/ or ^I like walk-e?2,' people began to say, 
'I like to drink, "* '^I like to walk.' Some verbs, however, 
were so often companions to the infinitive that it was found 
unnecessary to insert ' to.^ Hence we have such forms as — 



I bade him 
I let him 
1 made him 

I can 

I dare 
I may 
1 must 
I shall 
I should 
I will 



y come = 



come = 



I ordered him 
I permitted him 
I compelled him 

I am able 
1 venture 
I am allowed 
I am forced 
I am sure 
I ought 
I am resolved 



to come. 



to come. 



Most of these verbs have thus lost their original inde- 
pendence, and have sunk into mere indications of the time 
of an action or the manner of its assertion; as, ' I 7nay go,^ 
^I shall go/ Words which are thus allies, or helps, are 
called Auxiliaries. The verb-auxiliaries are — 

(1) Emphatic: do {did); as, 'I do think so,' 'I did see it.' 

(2) Passive : "be {am, was, been) ; as, ' He was defeated.' 

(3) Tense [time]: have {had), shall, will; as, 'I shall go,' 

' I had gone.' 

(4) Mode [manner]: may {might), can {could), should, 

would, must: as, ' 1 m.ay go,' ' I must 

go.' 

(5) Infinitive: to. 



I>AETS OF SPEECH — IlsTFLECTIOK OF YERBS. 105 

The word that is helped by the auxiliary is called 
principal. Their combination is regarded as a unit. Thus, 
^ might have been given/ a verb-phrase, is a verb. 

Do, be, have and will are sometimes principal: 

Do this. 

I did it. 

Be silent. 

I am [= I exist]. 

I shall he. 

I have it. 

He willed me his dog. ^ 

III. PERSON AND NUMBER. 

A verb may vary its form to a certain extent, in conse- 
quence of difference in the person of its subject: 

(1) First — I walk [or am walk-ing],^ 

(2) Second — You walk [or thou walk-est, art walking]. 

(3) Third — He walk-s [or he walk-eth, is walking]. 

The form may be varied in consequence of difference in 
the number of its subject: 

(1) Singular — [See (1), (2), and (3) above.] 

(2) Plural — We, you, or they walk [or are walking]. 

Hence verbs are said to agree with their subjects in 
person and number. ^ 

IV. TENSE. 

The time of an action may be — 

(1) Present — I walk [do or am walking]. 

(2) Past — I walk-ed [did walk, or was walking]. 

(3) Future — I shall [or will] walk [shall or will be walking]. 

^ Let the pupil now be given exercises 1, S, 3, and 4, pp. 121, 122. 

2 Let the pupil here give, as in (1), (2), and (3), the person- forms of a list 
of verbs. 

^ Let the person-forms of the given list be put in the plural. 



106 LESSONS li^" ENGLISH GKAMMAE. 

As ^ tense '1 means time, (1) is called Present Tense, 
(2) Past Tense, and (3) Future Tense. The form of the 
verb made by using ' do ' and ' did ' is called the emphatic. 
The forms including the present participle, since they 
indicate the continuance of the act, are called progressive. 
To put (1), (2), and (3) in the plural, no changes are 
required except those of ^am^ to ^are^ and ' was^ to '^were.^ 
Old or solemn forms — (1) '^thou walk-est, art walking,' 
' he walk-eth '; (2) * thou did-st walk, was-t or wer-t walk- 
ing'; (3) Hhou shal-t or wil-t walk, or be walking.' 

Then there are three other forms which express an 
action as completed (or perfected) in the present, in the 
past, or in the future: 

(4) Present Perfect — I, you, they, have walked (or have been 

walking) ; he has walked (or has 
been walking). 

(5) Past Perfect ^ — I, you, he, they, had walked (or had been 

walking). 

(6) Future Perfect — I, you, he, they, shall have walked (or 

shall have been walking). 

The ordinary perfects consist of the past participle 
' walked ' and the auxiliaries ' have ' for the present, ' had ' 
for the past, and ^ shall [or will] have' for the future. 
The progressive forms employ the past participle 'been.' 
The solemn forms call for no change except from 'have' 
to ' has-t,' from ' had ' to ' had-st,' and from ' shall ' or 
'will' to 'shal-t' or 'wil-t,' for the second person; from 
'has' to 'ha-th' for the third. 

1 Latin tempus, French temps. 

^This is known also as the Pluperfect, while the progressive form of the 
simple Past is known as the Imperfect. 



PARTS OF SPElECH — INFLECTIOl^ OF VERBS. lO? 

Along with the simple or present infinitive * to walk/ 
we have the perfect, ^ to have walked ' (known also as the 
present perfect), and the corresponding progressive forms 
* to be walking/ ' to have been walking/ 

Along with the present participle, ^walking/ we have 
not only the simple past '^ walked/ but the compound 
forms: perfect, '^ having walked^ (by some called perfect, 
by others past-perfect) and progressive, ^having been 
walking/ 1 

V. MODE. 

The verb may express the action as d^fact; as doubtful 
or obligatory; or as commanded: that is, the mode or 
manner of expressing the action may be — 

(1) Indicative — He walk-s (walk-ed, was walking.) 

Present — He may, can or must walk. 

Past — He might, could, would, should 
walk. 

Present Perfect — He may have walked, etc. 

Past Perfect — He might have walked, etc. 
(3) Imperative — Walk, Be walking. 

To make the progressive form of (2), insert ^be^ before 
the present participle for the present, and ' been ' for the 
perfects: ^ may be walking,^ ' may have been walking, "* etc. 
Mode (1) has the six tenses, (2) has four; and (3) has one 
— the command is necessarily present, the performance is 
necessarily future. 

The central idea of the indicative is actuality; of the 
potential, possibility, necessity, or conditionality ; of the 
imperative, volition. The so-called subjunctive, as a 
separate mode, is so nearly lost in our language that we 

* Let the verbs be expressed, through the several persons and numbers, 
first in the tenses of (1), (2), and (3), then in those of (4), (5), and (6). 



(2) Potential — 



108 LESSOi^S In EKGLiSH GRAMMAE. 

have excluded it from the classification. ^ It is a source of 
infinite confusion to maintain it; since (1) there is no 
peculiar form for it; (2) there is no peculiar meaning 
for it^ it being indicative or potential in meaning, ac- 
cording as it has the indicative or potential form. The 
subjunctive present may be regarded as a shortened future 
tense. '^ If I go/ '^ if I be/ mean in fact, ^ if I shall go/ ' if 
I shall be.^ The past tense, except in the verb to be, is 
like the indicative: ' if I went/ ' if he went.^ And there is 
no sufficient reason why ^ if I were/ ^ if he were/ may not 
be classed as potential: 

If Hwere [it should be] done when 'tis done, then Hwere [it 

would be] well 
It were [should be] done quickly. ~ 

VI. VOICE. 

Again, if the subject names the doer of the action, the 
verb is said to be in the active voice, as ^He loves ^; if it 
names the object of the action — the person or thing acted 
upon — the verb is said to be in the passive voice, as 
'He is loved/ 

Only transitive verbs may thus be put in two forms. 
An intransitive verb may, by help of a preposition, be used 
in the passive voice: 

* The subjunctive, as a separate mode, is almost lost and out of mind in 
our language. — Whitney. 

The machinery is too great for the occasion; we find that conditionality 
can be given by a conjunction — ' if ' or ' though ' — and need not be repeated 
in the verb. — Bain. 

Formerly the present subjunctive was used in expressing present time ; 
but at present it is properly used only when reference is had to future time. 
Even then, it is regarded by the most learned grammarians as an elliptical 
form of the potential. — Tweed. 

^ Let now the given exercises be expressed in the tenses of the potential 
and imperative modes. 



PARTS OF SPEECH — INFLECTION OF VERBS. 



109 



The sun shines on the sea. 

■If- 

The sea is shone-on by the sun. 

Some intransitives have a passive form, but are not in the 

passive voice: 

I am come [= I have come]. 
He is gone [= He has gone]. 

To make the passive voice, place before the 2^<^st or 
passive participle the proper form of the auxiliary be : 



Present Tense. 



I am 
He is 
We are 
You are 
They are 



loved or 

being 

loved. 



Indicative Mode. 

Past Tense. 
I was 

He was loved or 

We were ■ being 
You were loved. 
They were - 



Future Tense. 



I 

He 
We 
You 
They 



shall be loved. 



Present Perfect. 



Past Perfect. 



Future Perfect. 



' 1 ^ 

You I have been He 

We j loved. We 

They ^ You 

He . . has been loved. They 



had been 
loved. 



I 

He 
We 
You 
They 



Potential Mode. 



Present Tense. 
I 



Past Tense. 



He 
We 
You 
They 



may, . 
can, or 
must be 
loved. 



I 
He 

We 

You 

They 



might, 
could, 
should, 
or would 
be loved. 



Present Perfect. 

I 
He 



We 

You 
They 



may, can, 
or must 
have 
been 
loved. 



shall or will 
have 
been loved. 



Past Perfect. 

might, 

could, would, 
or should 
I have been 




They J loved. 



Imperative Mode. 
Be loved. 

Infinitives. 
Present: To be loved. Perfect: To have been loved. 

Participles. 
Present (progressive) : Being loved. Past: Loved, having been loved, i 



^ Let the pupil be drilled in changing transitive verbs from the active to 
the passive, and from the passive to the active. Let him also be required to 
construct progressive forms for both voices, solemn forms included. 



110 LESSONS IK ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

VII. CONJUGATION. 

To state or bring together all the forms of a verb, so as 
to show its persons, numbers, tenses, modes, and voices, is 
to conjngate it. 

There are in English two conjugations — the Strong 
and the Weak. The first is seen in ^I shake, I shook, 
I am shaken^; the second in ^ I love, I loved, I am loved. ^ 
To the one division belong verbs which form the past 
tense by changing the vowel, as ' speak, ^ ^ spoke'; to the. 
other, those which form it by adding ed, d, or t, as 
^plant-ed,^ ^move-d,^ '^wep-t.' The principle of this clas- 
sification is, that the power of varying a word by internal 
change implies a certain innate vitality not possessed by 
roots capable of being varied only by the addition of exter- 
nal elements. The Strong conjugation is the older. The 
verbs belonging to it are all of Saxon origin. Derivative 
words, and words adopted from other tongues, belong to 
the more modern, or Weak. This is now regarded as 
regidar; while the older — once the common — is called 
irregular. 

Notice carefully that a strong verb adds nothing to the 
present tense in order to form the past: * Got,^ the past of 
^get,"* is strong; but '^tol-d," the past of ^tell,' is weak. 

The past or passive participle once ended in en for 
all strong verbs, but this suffix has in many cases fallen 
away; as ^ drunk ^ [ = '^ drunk-en']: When strong verbs 
form their past participles in ed (d or t),i they become 
weak: strong, '^ He has mow^ ^- weak, ^He has wo^c'ec?,^ 



^ 3ee page 131 for origin of this ending. 



PAKTS OF SPEECH — IN^FLECTIOI^ OF VERBS. 



Ill 



The Principal Parts of a TVrb are the present indica- 
tive (root)^ 7Jfl^5^ indicative (known also as preterite), and 
th.Q past participle; as ^ write/ ^ wrote/ ^written ^; ^ serve/ 
^served/ ^served/ These are called ^principal/ because 
the whole conjugation of any verb is based upon them. 

Let pupils be required to make short sentences illus- 
trating the proper use of the principal parts of verbs in the 
following lists: 



(1) List 


OF Strong or Irregular Verbs. 


Present Tense. 


Past Tense. 


Past Participle. 


abide 


abode 


abode 


am 


was 


been 


arise 


arose 


arisen 


awake 


awoke, awaked ^ 


awoke, awaked 


bake 


hahed 


[baken],^ baked 


bear (bring forth) 


bore [bare] 


born 


bear (carry) 


bore [bare] 


borne 


beat 


beat 


beaten 


begin 


began 


begun 


behold 


beheld 


beholden, beheld 


bid 


bade, bid 


bidden, bid 


bind 


bound 


bound 


bite 


bit 


bitten, bit 


blow 


blew 


blown 


break 


broke [brake] 


broken [broke] 


burst 


burst 


burst 


chide 


chid [chode] 


chidden, chid 


choose 


chose 


chosen 


cleave (split) 


clove, cleaved, cleft 


cloven, cleaved, cleft 


cling 


clung 


clung 


climb 


[clomb] climbed 


climbed 


cling 


clung 


clung 


come 


came 


come 



1 Regular forms in italics. 



^ Old forms in brackets. 



112 



LESSORS 11^ ENGLISH GEAMMAE. 



Present Tense. 


Past Tense. 


Past Participle. 


crow 


crew, crowed 


crown, crowed 


do 


did 


done 


draw 


drew 


drawn 


drink 


drank 


drunk 


drive 


drove 


driven 


eat 


ate 


eaten 


fall 


fell 


fallen 


fight 


fought 


fought 


find 


found 


found 


fling 


flung 


flung 


fly 


flew 


flown 


forbear 


forbore 


forborne 


forget 


forgot 


forgotten, forgot 


forsake 


forsook 


forsaken 


freeze 


froze 


frozen 


get 


got 


got, gotten 


give 


gave 


given 


go 


went 


gone 


grave 


graved 


graven, graved 


grind 


ground 


ground 


grow 


grew 


grown 


hang 


hung, hanged 


hung, hanged 


heave 


hove, heaved 


heaved 


hew 


hewed 


hewn, heived 


hold 


held 


held [holden] 


know 


knew 


known 


lade 


laded 


laden, laded 


lie (recline) 


lay 


lain 


melt 


melted 


molten, melted 


mow 


mowed 


mown, mowed 


ride 


rode [rid] 


ridden [rid] 


ring 


rang, rung 


rung 


rise 


rose 


risen 


rive 


rived 


riven, rived 


run 


ran 


run 


see 


saw 


seen 



PARTS OF SPEECH — IKFLECTION^ OF VERBS. 



113 



Present Tense. 


Past Tense. 


Past Participle. 


seethe 


sod, seethed 


sodden, seethed 


shake 


shook 


shaken 


shaved 


shaved 


shaven, shaved 


shear 


sheared 


shorn, sheared 


shine 


shone, shined 


shone, shined 


shoot 


shot 


shot 


shrink 


shrunk [shrank] 


shrunk [shrunken] 


sing 


sung [sang] 


sung 


sink 


sunk [sank] 


sunk 


sit 


sat 


sat 


slay 


slew 


slain 


slide 


slid 


slid, slidden 


sling 


slung 


slung 


slink 


slunk 


slunk 


smite 


smote 


smitten 


sow 


sowed 


sown, sowed 


speak 


spoke [spake] 


spoken 


spin 


spun 


spun 


spring 


sprung [sprang] 


sprung 


stand 


stood 


stood 


steal 


stole 


stolen 


sting 


stung 


stung 


stink 


stank 


stunk 


strew 


strewed 


[sti'ewn] strewed 


stride 


strode, strid 


stridden, strid 


strike 


struck 


struck [stricken] 


strive 


strove 


striven 


strew 


strowed 


[strewn] strowed 


swear 


swore [sware] 


sworn 


swell 


swelled 


swollen, swelled 


swim 


swum [swam] 


swum 


swing 


swung 


swung 


take 


took 


taken 


tear 


tore [tare] 


torn 


thrive 


throve, thrived 


thriven, thrive^ 


thfov 


threw" 


thrown 



114 



LESSONS IN ENGLISH GKAMMAR. 



Present Tense. 


Past Tense. 


Past Participle. 


tread 


trod 


trodden, trod 


wake 


woke, waked 


woke, waked 


wear 


wore 


worn 


weave 


wove 


woven 


win 


won 


won 


wind 


wound 


wound 


wring 


wrung 


wrung 


write 


wrote 
(2) List of Weak Verbs, 

SEEMINGLY IRREGULAR. 


written 


Present Tense. 


Past Tense. 


Past Participle. 


bereave 


bereft, bereaved 


bereft, bereaved 


beseech 


besought 


besought 


bring 


brought 


brought 


burn 


burnt, hurned 


burnt, burned 


buy 


bought 


bought 


catch 


caught 


caught 


cleave 


cleft 


cleft 


creep 


crept 


crept 


deal 


dealt 


dealt 


dream 


dreamt, dreamed 


dreamt, dreamed 


dwell 


dwelt 


dwelt 


feel 


felt 


felt 


flee 


fled 


fled 


have 


had 


had 


hide 


hid 


hid, hidden 


keep 


kept 


kept 


kneel 


knelt, kneeled 


knelt, kneeled 


lay 


laid 


laid 


lean 


leant, leaned 


leant, leaned 


learn 


learnt, learned 


learnt, learned 


leap 


leapt, leaped 


leapt, leaped 


leave 


left 


left 


lose 


lost 


lost 


make 


made 


made 


mean 


meant 


meanj; 



PARTS OF SPEECH — INELECTIOI^ OF VERBS. 



115 



Present Tense. 


Past Tense. 


Past Participle. 


pay 


paid 


paid 


rap 


rapt 


rapt 


say 


said 


said 


seek 


sought 


sought 


sell 


sold 


sold 


shoe 


shod 


shod 


sleep 


slept 


slept 


spell 


spelt, spelled 


spelt, spelled 


stay 


staid, stayed 


staid, stayed 


sweep 


swept 


swept 


teach. 


taught 


taught 


teU 


told 


told 


think 


thought 


thought 


weep 


wept 


wept 


work 


wrought, worked 
(&) 


wrought, worked 


Present Tense. 


Past Tense. 


Past Participle. 


bend 


bent 


bent 


bleed 


bled 


bled 


breed 


bred 


bred 


build 


built, huilded 


built, huilded 


cast 


cast 


cast 


clothe 


clad, clothed 


clad, clothed 


cost 


cost 


cost 


cut 


cut 


cut 


feed 


fed 


fed 


gild 


gilt, gilded 


gilt, gilded 


gird 


girt, girded 


girt, girded 


hit 


hit 


hit 


hurt 


hurt 


hurt 


knit 


knit 


knit 


lead 


led 


led 


let 


let 


let 


light 


lit, lighted 


lit, lighted 


meet 


met 


met 



■116 



LESSOi^S li^ EN^GLISH GRAMMAE. 



Present Tense. 


Past Tense. 


Past Participle. 


put, 


put 


put 


read 


read 


read 


rend 


rent 


rent 


rid 


rid 


rid 


send 


sent 


sent 


set 


set 


set 


shed 


shed 


shed 


shred 


shred 


shred 


shut 


shut 


shut 


slit 


slit 


slit 


speed 


sped 


sped 


spend 


spent 


spent 


spit 


spit [spat] 


spit 


split 


split 


split 


spread 


spread 


spread 


sweat 


sweat 


sweat 


thrust 


thrust 


thrust 


wet 


wet, wetted 


wet, ivetted 


whet 


whet, whetted 


whet, whetted 



VIII. SIMPLE FORMS. 

An English verb is conjugated partly by inflection 
(change in its own form), but chiefly with the help of 
auxiliaries. The inflections are made by vowel-change 
and by suffixes. The latter are — 

est (-st, -t), of past and present indicative, second singular, 

old form: ha-st. 
s, of present indicative third singular : ha-s. 
eth. (-th), of present indicative, third singular, old form : ha-th.. 
ed (-d, -t,), of past indicative and past participle of weak 

verbs: ha-d. 
ing, of present participles: hav-ing". 
en (-n), of past participles of strong verbs : bee-n. 

Both vowel-change and endings are seen in ' write,^ 
' wrote/ ' written/ 'writes/ '^ writ eth/ 'writest/ '^ wrotest/ 
* writing.^ 



PAETS OF SPEECH — IKFLECTIOK OF VEKBS. 



117 



IX. COMPOSITE FORMS. 

The conjugation of the copula contains three distinct 
roots — am, he, and luas, all of which appear in the prin- 
cipal parts, 'am/ 'was/ 'been.^ 

The eleven distinct forms found in the full conjugation 
of this verb are — 
am 
art 
is 
are 

With the omission of the old forms, so seldom used, 

the scheme is: 

Indicative Mode. 



was 


be 


wast 


being 


were 


been 


wert 





Present 


Tense. 




Past Tense. 


Future Tense. 


I am 
He is 


I I 

_- r was. 

He * You 






We 


We \ He 




■ shall or will be. 


You r are. 


You j" were. We 






They 




rhey J They, 


. 




Present Perfect 




Past Perfect. Future Perfect. 


I ] 


] 


[ 1 


I 


' 




You ^ , You 
,^ y have been. ..^ 
We 1 He 

They J We 


You 
■ had been. He 
We 




shall or Avill 
have been. 


He . . has been. They 


They 


- 








Potential Mode. 




Present Tense. 


Past Tense. Present Perfect. 


Past Perfect. 


I 

You 
He 
We 
They - 


may, 
can, or 
must 
be. 


I 

You 
He 
We 
They ■ 


might, \ 
could, You 

Hp 
would, or 

should be. ^® 

They J 


may, can, 
or must 
' have 
been. 


I 

You 
He 
We 
They ■ 


might, 
could, 
■ would, or 
should 
have been. 






Imperative Mode. 








Be. 








Infinitives. 






Presen 


.t: To be. Perfect: To have been. 






Participles. 








J 


Present: 


Being. Pah 


t: Been. 









118 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAE. 

Do is conjugated in all of its parts as a transitive verb.- 
As auxiliary, it is used (1) to express emphasis — 'Do give 
it to him'; (2) in negative and interrogative forms — ''I 
did not see him/ 'Did you believe it?' 

Have is the auxiliary of perfect tenses, and expresses 
finished action — ^I have said/ ^He had spoken/ As 
principal or independent verb, it expresses possession — ' I 
have one,' ' We had some/ 

"Will meant originally to desire, to wish. In this sense 
it is still an independent verb: 

I will be cleansed. 

She willed me to leave my base vocation. 

Its past, or preterite, once luilede, became early wolede, and 
this led to ' would, ' with the silent I. 

Shall (from sceal, sculon, present, and sceolde, sceoldon, 

preterite) appears to have once signified to owe. Hence 

Chaucer: 

' For by the f aithe I shall to God. ' 

Whence we learn the meaning and the derivation of 
^should.' 

May (earlier either may or mow^ is from Saxon mag an, 
which had the force of the Latin posse, ' to be able. ' 
Wy cliff e writes: 

* The great dai of his wrath the cometh and who shall mow [be 
able to] stand?' 

The regular past was mought, the ancestor of our ' might. ' 

Can, expressing power, has a similar history: present, 
can; past cuthe. The following are instances of its force 
as hnow: 



PARTS OF SPEECH — IKFLECTIOK OF VERBS. 119 

I lerne song, I can but smal grammere. — Chaucer. 

His fellow taught him homeward prively 

Fro day to day, tell he coude it by rote. — Ibid. 

Such is the descent of ' could." 

Must comes from the old English moste, past tense of 
the verb motan, ^io be able/ ' be obliged.' It is now used 
in all persons and tenses to denote necessity and obligation: 

For as the flsse, if it be dry, 

Mote, in defaute of water, die. — Oower. 

Men mosten given silver to pore [poor] freres [friars]. — Chaucer. 

It may not be amiss to add that from the Old Eng- 
lish infinitive agan (present cth, past dhte) arise the mod- 
ern 0"we and ought, which have been separated by the 
two-fold sense of their original^ — I am a debtor, and I am 
under a moral ohligation. The separation has given to the 
former the modern preterite ^owed/ and has made the 
latter both preterite and 'present. Thus: 

All England dhte for to knowe. — Old Political Song. 

I owe to be baptized of thee, and thou comest to me. — Wycliffe. 

Auxiliaries combine with — 

(1) Participles: present or active, 'I am writing^- past or 

passive, ' It was written.^ 

(2) Root-infinitives : ' I may, can, will [to] write '; ' I do [to] 

write.^ 

(3) Infinitives and participles : ' I shall [to] be writing, or 

shall [to] have written^; 
'It shall [to] have been 
ujritten.^ 

An inspection of the compound forms shows that the so- 
called auxiliary is the real asserting word. Thus the true 
verbs in (1) are ' am^ and ^was/ each supplemented by a 



120 LESSON'S IN ENGLISH GKAMMAK. 

verbal adjective. In (2), ^I do write ''= I do or perform 
this thing, namely [to] write. *^I shall or will write ''= 
I owe or decide [to] write. ^May write/ 'can write/ 
'should write/ etc., may likewise be each resolved into 
indicative verb and infinitive complement. 'Shall have 
been written/ in (3), is composed of the word 'shalP as 
base, and the perfect infinitive passive, ' [to] have been 
written/ as object complement. Or it may be said to con- 
sist of the indicative future-perfect copula and the com- 
plementary participle 'written.^ 

It thus appears (see also page 104) that the potential 
signs, 'may,^ 'can,^ etc., are in themselves indicatives; 
but the verb-phrases which they help to form are, since 
they signify especially the possibility of an action, properly 
said to be of the potential mode. 

Besides the composite forms of conjugation, progres- 
sive and emphatic, already noticed, there is an inter- 
rogative, which places the subject after the first auxiliary: 
'Does he sing?^ 'Will you take this?^ 'May he have 
arrived ? ' 

The present perfect indicative represents a past 
action or event with reference to present time: 'I have 
eaten my dinner.' 

The past perfect indicative represents a past action 
or event as finished at or before a certain past time: 'I 
had eaten my dinner before you arrived.' 

The future perfect indicative represents an action 
or event as finished at or before a certain future time: 'I 
shall have eaten my dinner before you arrive.' 



PAKTS OF SPEECH — IKELECTION" OF YEKBS. 121 

The present potential implies either present or 
future time: ^It may be raining [now]"; 'I may go to 
town/ 

The past potential denotes — 

(1) Obligation absolutely : *He should he ihaxiktvilj 

(2) Habit or custom : ' He would he absent a week at a time.' 

(3) Past ability: * He could walk yesterday.' 

(4) Present or future ability : ' I could do it now, ' ' I could write 

to you next week, ' ' If I should 
write to you,' etc.; ^Should I 
[or were I to] leave to-day, I 
should return next week.' 

EXERCISES. 

1. Pick out the verbals, explain how they are used, and give the sub- 

class of each : 
(1) She is fond of reading. (2) He loves to describe an event 
as present. (3) He, loved by all, loved everybody. (4) 
He is charged with having stolen a horse. (5) I dare do 
all that may become a man. (6) Let Henry go. (7) 
Seeing the man approach, she retraced her steps. (8) 
Made cheerfully, her promise made him happy. 

2. Make sentences containing verbals formed from the following 

words, and show how they are used : 

help study hope go 

grow recite plow enjoy 

twinkle see declare come 

inquire learn suffer plot 

3. Tell whether the words in italics are auxiliaries or principal : 

(1) 1 think, therefore I am. (2) I learn that you have removed 
from town. (8) How does he? (4) I will go. (5) I 
have many cares. (6) Did you do that ? (7) I tvill it. 
(8) I shall will him a thousand dollars. (9) He may 
have heen killed. 



122 LESSOIfS IN" EI^GLISH GRAMMAR. 

4. Pick out the verbs, tell whether they are simple or composite ; if 
the latter, which part may be regarded as principal : 
(1) He has stolen my horse. (2) Can storied urn or animated 
bust back to its mansion call the fleeting breath ? (3) 
Did you see the comet ? (4) Your hat lies on the stand. 
(5) Close beside her, faintly moaning, fair and young a 
soldier lay, torn with shot, and pierced with lances, 
bleeding slow his life away. (6) He was drunk before 
the liquor was drunk. (7) I am very much obliged to 
you. (8) I am obliged to go home. 

6. Put the verbs of the following sentences first into the past tense, 
then into the future ; then into the passive voice : 
(1) The village master teaches his little school. (2) I hear thee 
speak of the better land. (3) He promises me a present. 
(4) His friends laugh at him. (5) The artful fellow 
imposes upon all. (6) I harm you not. (7) He tells me 
to go home. (8) She picks a rose. (9) He invades Italy. 
(10) His eloquence strikes them dumb. 

6. Express the above sentences in all the tenses of the indicative and 

potential ; then change from the active to the passive voice. 

7. Give all the participial forms, active, passive, and progressive of — 

give choose keep hurt 

bite break find lead 

read wish sink feed 

save hold buy lose 

8. Use in short sentences the past perfect progressive of each of these 

verbs, and tell whether the verb is transitive or intransitive, 

regular or irregular: 

sow sell quit ring 

bind see smit shake 

win blind rebel get 

live heat plant hide 

loose stick wink know 

9. Write sentences illustrating the correct use of the principal parts 

of lie, sit, see, set, come, lay, rise, raise, do. 



PAETS OF SPEECH — Ilf FLECTION OF VERBS. 123 

10. Analyze the following verb-phrases: 

(1) He shall be called Benjamin. (3) Did you think that I 
would do it? (3) He is certainly writing. (4) You 
should have seen him when he was lifted out of the 
water. (5) Might not the danger have been avoided? 

11. Justify or correct the parts in italics: 

(1) I have saw it. (2) These is the plural of this. (3) Neither 
of them were here. (4) There comes the dogs. (5) 1 
seen him yesterday. (6) It lays on the bed. (7) I raised 
up and struck him. (8) He has stole my pencil since I 
come. (9) "Were the horses drove out? (10) The nation 
is prosperous. (11) Is not hoohs a noun? (12) He 
might have went. (13) He has fell from the tree. (14) 
Either you or 1 am going. (15) The merciful are blessed. 
(16) Money, as well as men, was needed. (17) He donH 
know. (18) Each of these expressions suggest anger. 
(19) Is the tongs in its place ? (20) Is ten dollars too 
much? (21) We are agreed, says I. (22) To seem and 
to be are different. 



CHAPTEE XXI. 

PARTS OF SPEECH — HOW TO PARSE. 

To give a complete account of a word as it stands in 
the sentence with which it is connected, is to parse it. 

Parsing [from pars, a part] is, literally, naming the 
'part of speech^ to which a word belongs; but in the 
present sense of the term it means naming all the gram- 
matical points of a word. 

This account includes, (1) the classification of the 
word; (2) the modifications — that is, its inflectional 
forms, number, case, gender, person, tense, mode, voice, 
or degree; (3) its function, relation, or construction — 
that is, the duty it does, the part it plays, in building up 
or ' constructing ' the sentence into which it enters. 

The following schemes may serve to guide the pupil as 
to the details and order of statement. The instructor 
must decide how full or brief a description shall be ex- 
pected at any time. After a good degree of skill has been 
acquired in the practice of parsing, it will be sufficient, 
ordinarily, to indicate only the class and relation of the 
word.i 

1 It is in the detection and exhibition of this vital relationship of the words 
in the sentence that consists the peculiar value of the exercise. Intelligently 
pursued, the parsing of the words of a sentence calls into exercise the highest 
critical, logical, faculties of the mind. Far from being mechanical and use- 
less, it is the proper weapon of all successful attack upon the sentence ; and is 
as indispensable for its particular end, as is the equation in algebra, the syllo- 
gism in logic, or analysis in chemistry,— X>r. W. Q. Williams: Outlines of Eng- 
lish Crrammar. 

124 



PARTS OF SPEECH — HOW TO PAESE. 



125 



NOUN. 



1. Class 



2. Modifications 



3. Function . 



Common 

or 
Proper 



Number 



Gender 



Person 



Normal 



Case 



Abnormal 

( Singular 

I Plural 

f Masculine 
Feminine 
Common 1 
Neuter 
First 
Second 
Third 

Nominative 
Possessive 
Objective 
Vocative 



Abstract 
Material 
Collective 

Verbal 
Phrase 
Clause 



Subject (to what ?) 

Appositive (to what?) 

Possessive (limiting what?) 

Object (of preposition, of verb, or of verbal?) 



1. Class 



PRONOUNS. 

Personal 
Relative 
Interrogative 
. Demonstrative 

2. Represented noun, or antecedent. • 

3. Modifications. — Same as those of the noun. 

4. Function. — That of the noun. Relatives, and sometimes interro- 

gatives, also connect. 
* See, however, page 78. 



126 



LESS02!^S IN Ei^GLISH GRAMMAR. 



VERB. 



1. Principal Parts 



C As to Form 



2. Class 



i 



. As to Use 



(5) Voice 



(4) Mode 



3. Modifications -< 



(3) Tense 



Present Indicative 
Past Indicative 
Past Participle 

Regular, weak 

Irregular, strong 

Defective (deficient in any of 

its simple forms) 
Transitive 
Intransitive 

Active 

Passive 

Neuter (not expressing action) 

Indicative 

Potential 

Imperative 

Present 

Past 

Future 

Present Perfect 

Past Perfect 

Future Perfect 



(3) Number ] ^^^^^^^" 
i Plural 

(1) Person 



Plural 
First 
Second 
Third 



4. Form 



6. Function . 



' Common (ordinary, usual) 

Emphatic 

Progressive 
. Interrogative 

Asserts action, being, or state, of what? 



PARTS OF SPEECH — HOW TO PAESE. 



127 



2. Class 



>• Simple, Compound. 



VERBALS. 
1. From what? 

Present 

Past ) 

Present 

Perfect 
Participial Infinitive 

3. Fiinction . . . Subject, object, complement, or modifier of 

what ? 



' Participle 
Root-Infinitive ] 





ADJECTIVE. 




' Normal 


' Quality 

Quantity 

Interrogative 
L Demonstrative 


1. Class 




' Phrase 

Clause 

or 




-^ Abnormal 


What? 
Descriptive 
or 
. Limitary 

r Positive 



f irositive 

2. Modification. — Comparison 3 Comparative 

' Superlative 

3. Function. — Describes or limits what? 



ADVERB. 



1. Class 



Normal 
Abnormal 



r Phrase 
Clause 

or 
What? 



' Place 

Time 

Cause 

Manner 

Degree 
^ Condition 



128 



LESSONS 11^ ENGLISH GKAMMAK. 



/ Positive 

2. Modification. — Comparison J Comparative 

^ Superlative 

3. Function. — Throws its force on what? 



PREPOSITION. 

Place 
Time 
Agency 
Reason 
Possession 
Exclusion 
Material 
Sc. 
2. Function. — Links what part of speech to what? 



1. Class 



CONJUNCTION. 

' Copulative 



1. Class 



Co-ordinative 



Subordinative 



Alternative 

Correlative 

Adversative 

Illative 

Place 

Time 

Cause 

Condition 

Purpose or Result 

Comparison 

Substantive 

Pronoun 



Relative 



Adverb 



2. Function. — Joins what? 



INTERJECTION. 

( Normal 
( Abnormal 
2. Function. — Expresses what emotion? 



1. Class . 



PAKTS OF SPEECH — HOW TO PAKSE. 



129 



The 
lowing 

herd 

winds 

slowly 

o'er 
the 
lea. 



TABULAR PARSING. 
Adj., normal, demonstrative (def. art.); limits 'herd.' 



Adj., abnormal, descriptive, present participle of 'low'; 
modifies 'herd.' 



Noun, common, normal, collective, singular, neuter, 
nominative; subject of 'winds.' 



Verb, 'wind,' 'wound,' 'wound'; strong or irregular; 
intransitive, active, indicative, present, third, singu- 
lar, common form: asserts action of 'herd.' 



Adv., normal, manner, positive, (slowly, more, most). 
modifies 'winds.' 



Prep., local; links 'lea' to 'winds.' 



Adj., as above; limits 'lea.' 



Noun, common, normal, singular, neuter, object of 'o'er.' 



EXEBCISES. 

Parse the words in italics : 

Many centuries ago, a slave, who had made his escape from a 
cruel master, fled to a forest where night surprised him, so 
that he was forced to take refuge in a cave. Scarcely had he 
closed his eyes in the attempt to sleep, when he heard the 
roar of a lion beside him. He started up, hut it was too late ; 
the keen eyes of the lion had seen him, and were slowly com- 
ing nearer. Androcles — who had no arms of any kind — 
now gave himself m^ for lost. ^What shall 1 doP^ said he. 
' 1 have no spear or sword — no, not so much as a stick to 
defend myself with.' And he cried aloud in agony, '0 
foolish Androcles, why didst thou leave thy cruel master, 
who at least would have spared thy life because thou wast 



130 LESSONS IK ENGLISH GKAMMAK. 

useful to him, whereas now thou wilt he the meal of this 
hungry lion ? ' What was his surprise, however, to find that 
the lion, instead of sprmging on him, was walJci7ig quietly 
up to him, limping as though he were in pain. Gaining 
courage at this, Androcles made no attempt to run away. 
Presently the lion held out his paw, and on examining it, 
Androcles found that it was inflamed and swelled. Look- 
ing more closely, he perceives that a thorn has pierced the 
ball of the foot, and that it is from this that the lion is 
suffering. 



OHAPTEE XXII. 

PARTS OF SPEECH — WORD-MAKING. 

All inflections illustrate the process of word-making. 
Thus our familiar ^am^ represents an original as-mi, a 
verb and a pronoun, meaning *^be-I.^ * Is ' stand for as-ti, 

* be-that.' In like manner, the d of ^ loved' is a remnant 
of did; and ' I loved ' means I love-did = I did love = I 
did or performed a loving. Mi, ti, and did, once distinct 
words, have sunk into mere grammatical signs, with the 
exception of the latter, which still maintains its standing 
as a separate word. 

Again, the second syllable of ^ care-f ul ' is easily recog- 
nized as the adjective ' full," yet with the consciousness of 
its origin nearly lost. The ly of ' lovely ' is a relic of our 
common ^ike,' anciently lie, as in leofiic = ^love-like." 

In a vast number of our words we can thus discover 
two elements, one of which conveys the central idea, while 
the other indicates some modification of that idea. 

These cases, in which frequency of use has changed 
words of distinct meaning into meaningless endings, are 
broadly distinguished from others like ^fear-inspiring,' 

* break-neck,' and ^house-top,' which are directly translat- 
able back into the elements which form them. But all 
combinations run essentially the same course. There are 
couples which we to-day hardly know whether to write 

131 



132 LESSOKS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAK. 

separately or with the hyphen, as '^well-known/ '^mother- 
tongue/ 

There are others so grown together that we seldom or 
never think of their double nature, as ^himself/ ^herself/ 
Sometimes the connection is so close, that the original 
parts are quite obscured. Such is '^ fortnight ^= fourteen 
nights. Such is ' breakfast/ given to the morning meal 
because it hroke the longest fast of the twenty-four hours. 
^ Fearless ' was once fear-loose (free from fear), and Pope 
says, 'Be ware [beiuare] of man.^ 

In general there are four ways of making new words 
from given ones: (1) loj prefixes, as 'un-bind,^ ^co-heir'; 
(2) by internal change, as '^man,^ and 'men,' ' think ^ and 
' thank ^; (3) by suffixes, as 'gold-en,^ 'hand-some^; (4) 
by joining together distinct words, as 'steam-ship,^ 'white- 
wash.^ The first method usually changes the sense; the 
third usually changes the part of speech. 

The union of parts frequently compels a change for the 
sake of easy and agreeable utterance; as ' col-lect^ for con- 
lect, 'dif-fer^ for disfer, 'di-vulge^ for dis-vulge, 'an- 
archy-^ for a-archy. 

A word derived from another by the method of (1), (2), 
or (3) is called a Derivative ; and the word from which 
it is made is called its Primitive. A succession of suffixes 
and prefixes gives rise, of course, to relative or secondary 
primitives, as in 'tru-th,^ ' truth-iul,' ' truthful-lj ,' 'un- 
triothful-\j.' 

The union, in accordance with (4), of two words which 
are separately significant, is called Composition, and the 
resulting word a Compound ; ' day-star,^ ' sun-beam,' 
* rose-tinted.' In general the first component qualifies the 



PABTS OF SPEECH — WORD-MAKING. 133 

second. Note the difference between '^finger-ring^ and 
^ring-finger.^ Usually the compound throws the accent 
(or stress of voice) on the first part. Thus ^ Newport ' is 
easily distinguished from ^new port.^ A ^mad house' 
would be a family all deranged; but a '^ mad-house^ is a 
house for receiving the insane. 

We have already seen, however, that compounds tend 
to lose the identity of their parts, thus passing into deriva- 
tives; and that the latter really differ from the former 
only in their dimmed meaning. * Browning ' = hrown-mg 
= dark or tawny offspring; ' Egbert ^= eye-dright; ^ ^qjiq- 
dict^= ^e»e-f/iczf = well-said; ' ^\iQYiS.'= shire-reeve; '^mid- 
dle ^ = mid-deal; ' Massinger ' = mass-singer ; ' bridal ' — 
bride ale, a reminiscence of the marriage feast. 

A derivative, then, differs from a compound only in 
having a closer unity. In the one case, a constituent has 
degenerated into a non-significant appendage, more or less 
corrupted and altered; in the other, it has thus far pre- 
served, with measurable distinctness, its original character. 

While the following lists will greatly assist in discrim- 
inating native from foreign -words, they will not afford a 
sure key to the origin of the words into which they enter. 
Though the strict rule for word-making is, that all the 
parts of speech must be from the same language, English 
writers often permit themselves to form words from differ- 
ent languages. Words thus formed are mongrels, or (which 
is the Greek for ''mongrer), hybrids: ^shepherd-ess' = 
English -\- Norman-French; ^social-ism' or ^moral-ize' 
— Latin -f- Greek. In ''botan-ic-al,' the base and the 
primary suffix are Greek, and the secondary suffix is Latin; 
while ' botan-ic-al-ly ' adds a Saxon element. 



134 



LESSON'S IK EKGLISH GEAMMAR. 



The 



a, an 



important prefixes are: 

SAXON. 

. . 7 , /. i a-blaze, a-bed, a-foot, a-thirst, 
= 071, m, from, back of: ■{ . . , , 

( a-rise, a-right, an-swer. 

at-oiie, at-onement. 

al-mighty, al-one, 1-onely, al-so. 
j be-times, be-cause, be-friend, 
( by-word, be-dew. 

for-bid, for-swear, for-bear. 
( fore-run, fore-tell, 
( for-ward, forth-coming. 

in-sight, in-to, in-ure. 

mis-deed, mis-take. 

of-fal, off-shoot. * 

on-set, on-ward. 

out-live, out-let, ut-ter. 

over-flow, over-coat. 

un-do, un-bind, un-true. 

under-go, under-sell. 

up-hold, up-right, up-on. 

with-draw, with-stand. 



at 


= at: 


al 


= all: 


be 


= &2/(0.E.): 


for 


= negation: 


fore 
forth 


- — before: 


in 


= in: 


Tnis 


= error: 


off 


= from: 


on 


= upon: 


out 


= beyond (0. E. iit): 


over 


= over: 


un 


= back, not: 


under 


= beneath: 


up 


— up: 


with 


= back, against: 



LATIN. 

Note.— Let the student, by help of a suitable dictionary, trace the present 
meaning of these words back to the meaning of prefix and root. 

a, ab 

ahs before c, t 



ad 




ac before c 


af ' 


' / 


ag ' 


' 9 


al ' 


' I 


am ' 


' m 


a7i ' 


' n 


ap ' 


' P 


ar ' 


' r 


as ' 


' s 


at ' 


' t 



V = from: a-vert, ab-rupt, abs-tract, abs-cond. 



>■ = to, at: ad-join, ac-cretion, af-firm, ag- 
gregate, 'allude, am-munition, an-nul, 
ap-plaud, ar-rogate, as-sist, at-tract. ' 



PAETS OF SPEECH — WOED-MAKII^G. 



135 



= well: bene-fit, bene-volent. 

= around: eircum-vent, circum-scribe, circu-it. 



bene 

circum 

con 

col before I 

com " h or p 

cor " r 

CO " vowel or h 



, = with, together: con-nect, con-tempo- 
raneous, col-lect, com-bine, corn-press, 
cor-rupt, co-eval, co-heir. 

de = down, from, away: de-duce, de-press, de-throne. 

dis, di, dif = apart, in two, not: dis-Join, di-verge, dif-fuse. 

ex \ 

e before d, n, I, m V = out, out of: ex-press, e-ducate, e-lect 

^f "" f ^ e-manate, ef-face. 

in 

il before I . 



%m ' 

ir ' 

inter 

non 

Ob 

oc before c 



p, m 
r 



= in, into, on, not: in-vade, il-lumine, 
im-press, im-merse, im-piety, ir-radi- 
ate, ir-regular. 

= between: inter-vention, inter-line. 

= 7iot: non-sense, non-entity. 



/ 
p 



of ' 

op ' 

per 

post 

pre 

pro 

re 

semi 

sub 

sue before c 



in front of: ob-stacle. 
against: op-pose. 



=: (Fr. par) through: per-ceive, per-forra, par-don. 

=: after: post-pone, post-script. 

= before: pre-cept, pre-face. 

= (Fr. por, pour J forth, for-ward: pro-pose, pur-pose. 

= bach, again: re-duce, re-d^em, re-prove. 

= half: semi-colon, semi-circle. 



suf 

sug 

sum 

sup 

sur 

sus 

trans 



m 
p 
r 

s 



under, from under: sub-tend, suc-cor, 
suc-ceed, suf-fer, sug-gest, sum-mons, 
sup-pose, sur-render, sus-pect. 



= (Fr. tres, tre) across: trans-form, tres-pass, tra- verse. 



136 LESSOKS IK ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

. GREEK. 

i. = without: a-pathy, an-archy. 
an before vowels ) 

amphi = on both sides: amphi-bious. 

ana ='up, again, hack: ana-lysis, an-ec-dote, ana-logy. 

anti ) 

y = opposite to, against : anti-thesis, ant-arctic. 

y = down, about: cath-olic, cat-esrory. 
cat S ' » 5 J 

dia =: through : dia-meter, dia-gonal. 
di, dis = two: di-phthong, dis-syllable. 

[■ = forth, out: ec-centric, ex-orcising. 
ex before vowels ) 

en ) 

em before m, h, p Y = in, on: en-thusiasm, em-phasis, el-liptical. 

el '' I ) 

eu = welt: eu-logy, eu- phony. 

ortho = right: ortho-doxy, ortho-epy. 

■^ I = loving: philo-sophy, phil-anthropy. 

phil before vowel ) 

syn 

syl before I 

sym " h, m, p 
sy *' s, z 



. = with: syn-tax, syl-lable, sym-bol, sym-metry, 
sym-pathy, sy-stera. 



■ik 



Some of the important suffixes are: 

SAXON. 

d = passive sense: dee-d (from do), see-d (from sow), 

love-d. 
dom = condition: wis-dom, free-dom, Christen-dom. 

r participial or causative: burd-en (from bear), 
heav-en (heave), hast-en. 
en = ^ diminutive: kitt-en (from cat), gard(yard)-en. 

made of: flax-en, gold-en, wood-en. 
feminine: vix-en (from fox). 



PAETS OF SPEECH — WORD-MAKIKG. 



137 



er 

ar 
or 

full 
ing 

ish 
less 
let 
ling 

ly 

ness 
sMp 
some 

y 



agent: speak-er, begg-ar, sail-or, and (under Nor- 
man Fr. influence) law-y-er, cloth-i-er. 
instrument : fing-er, timb-er, wint-er (from wind). 
-.full of: hate-ful, need-ful. 
( verbal ending: learn-ing. 
( diminutive: farth-ing. 
: (0. E. isc) quality of: boy-ish, fool-ish. 
: loose, ^legation: art-less, god-less. 
: diminutive: stream-let. 
: diminutive: dar-ling (from dear), gos-ling. 
: (0. E. lie) like: mean-ly, home-ly, sof t-ly, like-ly. 
z ahstractive: wilder-ness, wit-ness, good-ness. 
:(0. E. scipe) form, shape: land-scape, lord-ship. 
•.participation in: dark-some, quarrel-some. 
= (0. E. ig) : bod-y, hon-ey, an-y, blood-y, silk-y. It 
has become oiv in holl-ow, sall-ow. 



ROMANIC. 

_ , , . , , . ( condition: bond-age. 

age = Lat. aacz<w, through \ 

^-. ^ •< result: break-age. 

Norman Fr. J . . f 

( location: hermit-age. 

al, el = Lat. alis: cardin-al, coron-al, fu-el, jew-el, annu-al, 

equ-al, loy-al [= reg-al = Lat. reg-alis'\. 
ant, ent = Lat. antem, entem: gi-ant, stud-en t, ramp-ant, 

pati-ent. 
ance, ence = Lat. antia, entia: abund-ance, sci-ence. 
ancy, ency = Lat. antia, entia: brilli-ancy, excell-ency. 
ate = Lat. atus: leg-ate, delic-ate, agit-ate. 

ble, able = Lat. hilis, flex: sta-ble, mov-able, dou-ble [= Lat. 

du-plex\. 
eer, ier = Fr. er, ier: Lat. arius: engin-eer, brigad-ier. 

ess = Lat. itia: distr-ess, rich-es. 

fy = Lat. jicare, Fr. fier: edi-fy, magni-fy, signi-fy. 

ic = Lat. icus, ica: mus-ic, cler-k [=: cler-ic], log-ic, 

phys-ic. 
ine, in = Lat. imis, inem: div-ine, fam-ine, orig-in, virg-ia. 

ish. =Lat. esc-o, Fr. iss: establ-lsh, fin-ish. 



138 LESSORS IN" Eiq"GLISH GRAMMAK. 

ism =Lat. ismus: de-ism, fatal-ism. 

ist =Lat. ista: bapt-ist, dent-ist. 

ive = Lat. ivus: act-ive, plaint-ive, pens-ive. 

ize = Lat. izare: civil-ize, fertil-ize. 

ment = Lat. mentum: gar-ment, argu-ment. 

on, eon, ion = Lat. onem, ionem: apr-on, glutt-on, compan-ioii, 

pig-eon. 

ose ) 

\ = Lat. osus: verb-ose, mor-ose, copi-ous, ciiri-ous. 
OUS ) » » r J 

son = Lat. sionem: beni-son, ran-som, rea-son, veni-son. 

t, te = Lat. tus: discree-t, hones-t, mu-te, chas-te. 

ter == Lat. ter: mis-ter, mas-ter (= Lat. m,agister), mus-ter. 

lire = Lat. ura: advent-iire, stat-ure, past-ure. 

Lat. ia: famil-y, victor-y (Lat. victor-ia). 

Lat. ium: stud-y obsequ-y. 

Lat. ous: spong-y. 

A study of the foregoing lists will slied much light up- 
on the derivation of ih.Q parts of speech. 

Of nouns, some are primitive; as ''eye/ '^hand/ '^hope.' 
In the comparison of languages, they may sometimes be 
traced to forms still more primitive; but so far as concerns 
English, they are roots. Derived nouns are formed from 
other nouns, from adjectives, and from verts, by prefixes, 
by internal change, but chiefly by suffixes: ^bishop-ric,' 
'kind-ness,^ ''song' (sing), ^ press-man,^ ^drunk-ard,' 
^choice' (choose), ''life" (live). 

In a similar manner, derived verbs are extensively 
formed from verbs, as, ^ be-seech ' (seek), ' burn-ish,' 
^rise," ^ raise," ^sit," "set'; from nouns, as "be-guile," "em- 
power," "length-en,' "gilt" (gold), "]orize" (price), "hitch" 
(hook); from adjectives, as "be-dim," "en-dear," "sweet-en." 

Derived adjectives are formed from nouns, as "rag- 
ged," "wood-en"; from verbs, as "win-some," " teach-able "; 



PAETS OF SPEECH — WORD-MAKIKG. 139 

from adjectives, as 'un-wise/ ''un-fair/ 'year-ly/ 'fvl- 



some/ 



Derived adverbs come principally from adjectives, by 
the addition of ly, as '^ careless-ly/ 'sweet-ly/ 'bitter-ly/ 
They are also formed from other parts of speech, as ' per- 
haps/ 'a-part/ '^a-drift/ ^al(l)-ways/ *'al(l)-so/ Our 
adverbs, like our adjectives, owe their descent, almost 
without exception, to other classes of words. ^ Once ' and 
^ twice 'are but old genitives of '^ one 'and '^two/ When 
we say, 'It must needs be,' w^e employ the genitive of 
r^need,' originally *^need-es/ Sometimes the adverb con- 
sists of several words run together, as '^now-a-days,' 
' never-the-less/ 

The chief prepositions are primitives; as ' of,' ' from,' 
'to,' *for,' 'by,' 'with,' 'over,' 'under.' A few are de- 
rived from other prepositions, from nouns, adjectives, or 
verbs; as 'a-long,' 'a-round,' 'be-yond,' 'a-board,' 'be- 
tween' [by-twain = by two], 'with-in'; 'ex-cept,' 'con- 
cerning,' 'notwithstanding,' which in form are participles. 

Conjunctions are either simple underived words of 
the language, as 'and,' 'if; or are appropriations from 
other parts of speech, as 'since,' 'except,' 'that,' 'before.' 
'Because' is 'by cause,' and 'than' is from 'then/ itself 
an ancient accusative. 

The great matter as regards derivation is to see clearly 
the meaning of significant prefixes and suffixes, and to 
use words accordingly. Dr. Chalmers, speaking of his suc- 
cess in dealing with pauperism in Glasgow, declared that 
what he had done was not an ' exiperiment, ' but an ' ex- 
iperience.' Compare ' exceptiono^r with ' exceptions JZe,' 
' troubM sleep ' with 'troublesome sleep.' 



140 LESSOKS IK ENGLISH GEAMMAR. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Combine the following prefixes and roots; give, as nearly as you 

can, the modifying force of the prefix; and tell what different 

parts of speech the resulting word may be : 

a, ah, ad, anti, he, hene, circum, con, de, e, ex, en, for, fore, 

in, mis, oh, out, over, pre, re, suh, syn, trans, un, under, up, 

with: ground, side, vert (turn), rupt (broken), tain (hold), 

torn (cut), join, judge, mount, fix, sure, tribute (give), arctic, 

pathy (feeling), lie, cloud, cause, fit (doing), volant (wishing), 

jacent (lying), spect (looking), stance (standing), fuse (pour), 

vene (come), moralize, tect (cover), appear, ease, tract, please, 

press, gress, mit (send), pectorant (breast), pand (spread), 

fulgence (shining), rage, gulf, grave (scrape), tomb, bitter, 

brace (arm), get, sake (seek), tell, see, taste, discreet, noble, 

modest, patient, liberal, regular, flame, fleet (bend). 

2. Join the following suffixes and bases ; give, if you can, the source 

of each; and state to what part of speech both primitive and 

derivative may or do belong: 
ade, age, at, dom, ic, ion, ism, ess* ier, ine, ive, ix, ly, ment, 
er, ness, ship, ure, y, ate, hie, en, ful, ish, ous, some, fy, ize: 
hero, heir, create, abuse, operate, perceive, adhere, chariot, 
visit, school, hunt, edit, widow, foreign, stock, mite, post, 
bond, parson, duke, king, poet, possess, precise, expand, 
despot, critic, heathen, case, punish, arm, bold, happy, moist, 
seize, modest, grocer, private, lunatic, nation, origin, part, 
music, affection, consider, change, honor, value, divide, 
accede, silk, wool, hope, play, lyre, adamant, boy, fop, fame. 

3. Join into compounds: 

wind, head, mill, strong, school, state, alms, house, door, key, 
God, man, like, snow, white, keeper, time, slave, born, wine, 
bibber, stone, blind, woman, servant, catch, word, in, chief, 
commander, land, high, love, self, star, day. 

4. Classify the following compounds, then classify the parts of each : 

red-breast, sing-song, dare-devil, hand-book, rose-bud, drawing- 
room, spit-fire, turncoat, instep, forethought, by-word, up- 



PAETS OF SPEECH — WOED-MAKIKG. 141 

rising, welcome, make-believe, in-gathering, hear-say, sea- 
green, pitch-dark, ^child-like, spirit-stirring, lion-hearted, 
far-fetched, over-done, fruit-bearing, rough-hew, brow-beat, 
length-ways, where-as, there-about, somehow, nowhere, with- 
out, upon, into, back-bite. 

5. Resolve the following into their elements (bases, prefixes, and 

suffixes), and classify, where possible, indicating also the part 

of speech in derivative and primitive: 
flattery, ending, coinage, aloud, monthly, blacken, linger, 
hinder, terrify, colonize, amid, along, perchance, enfold, 
untie, distrust, lengthen, active, lively, carelessly, oily, un- 
true, blackish, avoidable, lawless, beautiful, woolen, Eomish, 
wretched, director, idler, trickster, replace, reconstruct, per- 
fectible, annex, forefather, irresolute, misinform, suppress, 
repress, impress, impressible, irrepressible, facilitate, intru- 
sive, thicken, youthful. 

6. Form derivatives from the following as bases, and classify both : 

body, glory, weary, grace, incite, control, swim, awe, giddy, 
like, just, day, marvel, reverence, face, flame, vary, merry, 
annoy, holy, come, bind, new, vow, obstruct, expire, cat, 
thief, half, gird, fall, venture, Newfoundland. 

7. Derive single parts of speech from the following, and classify : 

sick with love, struck with fear, deal in pictures, with a month 
of gold, like a god, inspiring dread, hunt after fortune, 
abide by the laws, gaze at stars, tell the truth, tossed by the 
tempest, sees all things, bright like the su.n, a bearer of tales, 
about there. 



OHAPTEE XXIII. 

THE SENTENCE — PEINCIPAL ELEMENTS. 

The elements of a sentence are its parts. The prin- 
cipal elements are those necessary for the expression of a 
thought, — subject and predicate. 

The subject (by which is here meant the hare subject) 
is either a noun or its equivalent: 

Conversation enriches the understanding. 

The good must associate when the bad combine. 

To he innocent is to be not guilty. 

Reading much is not the only way to knowledge. 

*/ will try ' has wrought wonders. 

The predicate (that is, the hare predicate) is — 

1. Usually a verb: 

,.. ^. 1 j Responsibility sharpens our faculties. 

^ I am here.^ 

(2) Composite — The palace should not scorn the cottage. 

2. A verb and an adjective (called predicate ad- 
jective): 

Sweet are the uses of adversity. 

Iron is of great use = Iron is very useful. 

* 'Here,' like an adjective, seems to complete 'am,' and, like an adverb, 
to modify it. From its form and usual office, however, we think it should in 
this sentence be called an adverbial modifier of 'am,' [—exist]. The adverb, 
in this and similar sentences, may also be regarded as modifying some ' predi- 
cative' word understood. Thus: 'The sun is [gone] down.' 'Gold is 

[present] there.' 

143 



THE SENTENCE — PEINCIPAL ELEMENTS. 143 

3. A verb and a noun (predicate nominative) : 

Gray hairs are death's blossoms. 

To enjoy is to obey. 

Pilate's question was, 'What is truth 9^ 

It is implied in the above statements and examples that 
the predicate consists of two factors — an assertive and 
an attributive. 1 The former is the life of the sentence 
— the engine that propels the train. It is called the 
copula, to indicate that it couples the main ideas of a 
statement: ^She is good.^ 

The copula, by pre-eminence, is be, which originally 
expressed breathing, then existence, as it does now some- 
times: ^lam/ ^God is/ G-radually this meaning faded 
out, and the word came to be used frequently as a mere 
coupler, serving to bring two ideas into connection: 'God 
is good.' Both uses occur in the passage: ^We believe 
that He is, and that He is the rewarder of them that 
diligently seek him.^ He who would be saved from hope- 
less confusion, however, will do well to remember that the 
verb be has radically the sense of 'exist/ 'Victoria is 
queen ^ is, at bottom, equal to '-Victoria exists queen. ^ 
' The man is dying ' is no other than ' The man exists in 
a dying condition'; and 'The man is dead^ is neither 
more nor less than 'The man (that is, his body) exists 
dead^: for the existence [ex-stare, to stand forth] predi- 
cated by ' to be ' is predicable alike of things animate and 
inanimate. The copula expresses merely a relative, not an 

1 The several authorized views respecting the nature of the predicate are 
(1), that the predicate is always a verb; (2) that the predicate = copula + at- 
tribute ; (3) that the predicate is the attribute only. For a justification of the 
first view, see the author's Essentials of English, page 129. The second is here 
recommended, however, as being sufficiently precise and practically the best, 



144 LESSOI^S IN" EE^GLISH GKAMMAK. 

absolute, existence. ' Ptolemy is not alive ' denies his 
existence relative to life, but implies it in the other sense 
— that he exists to us as a dead man can, by remembrance 
or tradition. 

Understanding, therefore, that be really declares a 
thing existent, we may correctly affirm that the copula is 
an implied or formal portion of every predicate. It is the 
first, when being and attribution — the essentials of the 
predicate — are expressed in one word; as, ^Socrates 
speaks,^ where a certain act — that is, existence together 
with a certain condition of existence — is asserted. It is 
the second, when being and attribution are expressed in 
different words: 



PREDICATE. 



Copula. Attribute. 

(1) It is excellent 

(2) Gold is a metal 

(3) He is condemned 

(4) Socrates is (speaks) speaking 

The assertive element is affected, in (1) and (2), only 
by limitation; in (3) and (4), by both limitation and ex- 
pansion. Convenience, however, justifies us in treating 
these latter as units. Thus, ignoring in practice the dis- 
tinction which we make in theory, the term verh is applied 
equally to simple and composite forms. Grammatically, 
* Birds ^^y' = ''Birds are flying.' 

Dismissing the historical fact that the assertive element 
denotes being, and confining our view to its superficial 
office as a coupler, we may accept the common state- 
ment that be is a verb of incomplete predication, requiring, 
under this aspect, something additional to form any com- 



THE SENTENCE — PKII^CIPAL ELEMENTS. 145 

pleted sense. The addition may be variously designated^ 
as complement, suppleme^it, or predicate attribute. ^ 

A prepositional complement sometimes^ as we have 
stated elsewhere, enters into the structure of a verb-term: 
^burn up' [= consume], ^keep on' [=^ continue], '^ stand 
out' [= resist], ^make up' [= constitute], '^take up' 
[= arrest]. Such compounds are often transitive in the 
fullest sense, as tested by the passive construction: ''His 
zeal was wondered-^^^,^ ^ The servant was spoken-^ by his 
master.' 

Likewise, it will be remembered, a few other verbs 
which share the office of the copula as ties, yet are some- 
what more, are called copulatives: 

(1) He seemed ... (a monster). 

(2) He became ... (a hero). 

(3) He lived . . . (an apostle), and died ... (a martyr). 

(4) He appears, looks ... (a rascal). 

(5) He was tJiought, deemed, called, named ... (a villain). 

(6) He was made, appointed, created . . . (president). 

Here the entire attribute includes the noun, and that part 
of the verb which is not mere copula — the ideas of seem- 
ing, becoming, thinking, believing, etc. Such copulatives 
are also known as apposition verbs, because their com- 
plements are in apposition predicatively with their sub- 
jects :2 

^ Obviously, the attributive relation is not affected by position ; it may be 
assumed or it maybe asserted — predicated. 'Wise' is equally an attribute 
in 'the wise man' and 'The man is wise' (Mill's iog^ic, p. 57). For the asserted 
attribute, however, whether adjective or substantive, my friend Professor 
Williams {Outlines of English Grammar, p. 56) recommends 'predicative.' 

^Between 'he, a professed Catholic,' and 'He is a professed Catholic,' 
there is no other discoverable difference than ttat the identity signified by 
the appositive is, In the former, taken for granted, while in the latter it is 
affirmed. (See p. 58.) 



14:6 LESSORS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

EXERCISES. 

Name the principal elements in each sentence. If subject, state 
whether it is a normal or an abnormal noun (or plurality of 
nouns). If predicate, whether the complex idea — being and 
attribution — is expressed in one word or in several ; if the 
latter, whether the form is to be considered a composite verb, 
or a verb (copulative) and its complement. In both cases, 
whether the element is subject or predicate of the entire sen- 
tence, or of a part (as in a clause) : 

1. 1 love to lose myself in other men's minds. 

2. The Alps, piled in cold and still sublimity, are an image 

of despotism. 

3. Extreme admiration puts out the critic's eye. 

4. No scene is continually loved except one enriched by joyful 

human labor. 

5. The report is, that he is a traitor. 

6. Seen at a little distance, as she walked across the church- 

yard and down the village, she seemed to be attired in 
pure white, and her hair looked like a dash of gold on 
a lily. 

7. The evil of silencing the expression of an opinion is, that 

it is robbing the human race. 

8. He that allows himself to be a worm must not complain if 

he is trodden on. 

9. To speak perfectly well, one must feel that he has got to 

the bottom of his subject. 

10. All those things for which men plough, build, or sail, obey 

virtue. 

11. Of all sad words of tongue or pen, 

The saddest are these: 'It might have been.' 

12. To be at war with one we love, 
Doth work like madness in the brain. 



J 



OHAPTEE XXIY. 

THE SENTENCE — SUBORDINATE ELEMENTS. 

The simplest form of sentence consists of the essentials 
only — subject and predicate. Each of these, however, 
may be enlarged by other words that give it fullness or 
exactness of meaning; as 'the fire/ ^the bright fire/ ^the 
irightly Mazing fire/ ^the brightly blazing fire which was 
seen i?i the distance/ 

The subject is enlarged — 

1. By a normal adjective: 'Much anxiety shortened her life.' 

2. By an abnormal adjective — 

(1) A possessive : 'Mamie's anxiety shortened her life. • 

(2) An appositive : ' Peter the hermit was a Crusader ' ; 

'Her answer, ^^ Seven are we," was 
repeated.' 

(3) A prepositional phrase : 'The door on your right hand 

is open.' 

(4) A verbal phrase : ' Having spent its fury, the sea be- 

came quiet.' 

(5) A relative clause : 'A man who is provident is respected.' 

Evidently the predicate nominative and the object may be 
similarly enlarged. 

The predicate is enlarged — 

1. By an object: 

(1) Direct — ' He defies him ' ; ' He said that he would go.'' 
(3) Indirect — ' They gave him his supper.' 
147 



148 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GEAMMAR. 

2. By an adverb — 

(1 ) Normal : ' He rose early. ' 

(2) Abnormal: 

{a) Prepositional phrase : ' He cried with a loud voice.'' 

(b) Clause: ' I will go, if it does not rain.'' 

(c) Verbal : ' She went along singing. ' 

(d) Verbal phrase : ' He is believed to have heeti 

wro7iged ' ; ' She stood wring- 
ing her hands."* 

(e) Adverbial noun, denoting time, distance, value, 

direction, and the like: 'He sat an hour'; 'The 

tree was a hundred 
feet high ' ; 'It is 
worth a dollar. ' 

The adverbial noun is a remnant of Old English, 
which had special case-endings for such uses of the noun, i 

Of modifiers, some affect the subject and predicate 
directly, as '^ black/ ^yesterday/ or ^pleasantly/ in the fol- 
lowing sentence: 

The black squirrel on the oak tree in the meadow behind the 
barn was chatting pleasantly yesterday with a gray squir- 
rel on an ash tree in an adjoining field. 

Others affect the subject and predicate indirectly. Thus 
'^oak^ and ^in the meadow behind the barn/ limit ^squir- 
rel/ by first limiting tree. Likewise, '^in an adjoining 
field ^ first limits ^ tree, ' then ^ squirrel ' through ^ tree '\ 
then, through ^ squirrel,^ it limits '^was chatting.^ 

Since these modifiers merely exjDlain and depend upon 
the principal parts, they are said to be subordinate. There- 
fore, subordinate elements are the parts which modify 
principal elements. 

^ The noun in these uses is sometimes said to be in the objective case 
without a governing word, or to be governed by a preposition understood. 



THE SENTENCE — SUBORDINATE ELEMENTS. 149 

In picking out the modifiers of subject and predicate, 
those words whose meanings are closely united must go 
together. Thus ^the^ and '^ black ^ are separate modifiers; 
but as ^behind the barn' is a modifier of ^meadow/ and 
^in the meadow^ is a modifier of 'tree/ and ''on the oak 
tree" is a modifier of ' squirrel/ we should say that ^squir- 
rel' is modified, not merely by ^on the oak tree/ but by 
'^on the oak tree in the meadow behind the barn." What- 
ever is modified is base with reference to the term that 
modifies. 

Subordinate elements, as commonly divided, are of 
three kinds: 

Adjective, if they modify nouns. 

Objective, if they are the objects of transitive verbs. 

Adverbial, (1) if they modify adjectives or adverbs; 

(2) if they modify verbs, and are not objects. ^ 

When the predicate is regarded as consisting of copula 
and attribute, it would be well to determine whether the 
modification relates to the whole or more especially to one 
of these constituents. The pupil will often meet (as our 
examples at various times must have suggested) expres- 
sions that modify the verb relatively to the subject: 

He stood musing. 

She walked calm and majestic. 

Everyone will see that the modifying part in each of 
these examples, while it relates more or less to the verb, 
carries a manifest reference to the subject. Under the 
former aspect they are adverbial; under the latter, adjec- 
tival. 

1 Upon closer view, however, this classification is seen to be only approxi- 
mate. An objective element is merely a variety of the adverbial, not a sepa- 
rate or co-ordinate class. 



150 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

If itself unmodified^ the modifier is said to be simple : 

(1) He loves wisdom. 

(2) He is a lover of wisdom. 

(3) We hear that he is wise. 

If modified, it is complex : 

(1) He built houses of stone. 

(2) He ran with wonderful rapidity. 

(3) He said that the planets revolve, a well known fact. 

If consisting of two or more co-ordinate parts, it is 
compound : 

(1) Large and beautiful rivers. 

(2) Men of wisdom and of power. 

(3) They decide that you should come and that he should go. 

Either constituent, it is evident, may be modified, and 
thus become complex. 

A modifier, however extended, is said to be of the 
word-form., if its base (the fundamental portion) is a sin- 
gle term; of the phrase-form., if its base is a phrase; of 
the clanse-form., if its base is a clause. Not infrequently, 
a base that is primary with reference to a given modifier 
becomes, in union with such modifier, a complex base with 
reference to a second modifier. Thus in 'fragrant red 
roses, ^ the primary base is 'roses' — the secondary, 'red 
roses'; for 'fragrant' modifies, not 'roses,' but the com- 
plex idea in 'red roses.' 

Subordination, whether of modifiers in general, or of 
clauses in particular, may be of various degrees: 

History tells us (1) that Socrates said (2) that he was declared 
hy the oracle to be the wisest of men (3) merely because he 
knew (4) that he knew nothing. 

Here the object of the principal verb consists of four 



1- < 



2. 



THE SEISTTEKCE — SUBOEDINATE ELEMENTS. 151 

clauses^ of which (1) is modified by (2), (2) by (3)^ and (3) 
by (4). Observe that ^ merely^ throws its force upon the 
complex thought of (3) and (4): '^Merely because . < . 
nothing ' — merely for this reason = for this only. 

Finally, we have to consider the closeness of connection 
between a word and its modifier — whether the latter is 
necessary to the main thought or only explanatory. Thus, 
compare : 

He who is his own lawyer has a fool for a client. 
There are moral principles slumbering in the most de- 
praved. 
Swift asserts that no man ever wished himself younger. 

I dislike all misery, voluntary or involuntary. 
Man, who is horn of woman, is of few days. 
Spiritual natures, to grow in power, demand spiritual 
liberty. 

The italicized parts in (1) could not be omitted without 
serious injury to the sense or the utter destruction of it; 
those in (2), while they are truly limitary, are not im- 
portant or essential to the meaning. The former are 
therefore said to be restrictive, the latter parenthetical. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Distinguish between: ' He painted the hlue box,' and ' He painted 

the box hlue.^ 

2. In the preceding, give the entire modifier of ' distinguish.' Is this 

of the word, phrase, or clause form? What is its office? The 
incorporated sentences are the equivalents of what parts of 
speech ? 

3 Give the distinguishable shades of meaning in: ' Dido is queen,' 
'Dido, a queen, walks,' 'Dido walks a queen,' 'Dido walks 
queenlike,' 'Dido walks majestically.' 

4. Justify the use of ' is ' in * Myself is weak. ' 



152 LESSOKS IK ENGLISH GKAMMAR. 

5. Write a sentence containing, with reference to some modifier, a 

complex base. 

6. Write a sentence containing a complex modifier of the phrase- 

form. Write one with a complex modifier of the clause-form. 

7. Determine the subordinate parts; whether they are adjective, 

objective, or adverbial elements ; whether they are normally or 
abnormally (by equivalence) such; whether they are of the 
word, phrase, or clause form ; whether simple, complex, or com- 
pound : 

(I) We live in better times. (2) My connections, once the 

source of happiness, now embitter the reverse of my 
fortune. (3) He has a mind to discourse on that theme. 
(4) A mind at liberty to reflect on its own observations, 
seldom fails of entertainment to itself. (5) Toward 
night the school-master walked over to the cottage where 
his little friend lay sick. (6) Who can tell when he sets 
forth to wander, whither he may be driven by the uncer- 
tain current of existence, or when he may return? (7) 
What means this martial array, if its purpose be not to 
force us into submission ? (8) Pope was not content to 
satisfy, he desired to excel, and therefore always en- 
deavored to do his best. (9) He made them give up their 
spoils. 
(10) Money and man a mutual falsehood show. 

(II) Some pious drops the closing eye requires. 

(12) Oh she is 

Ten times more gentle than her father 's crabbed. 

(13) O, guide me to the humble cell 
Where resignation loves to dwell. 

(14) With sanguine drops the walls are rubied round. 
And nature in the tangles soft involved 

Of death-like sleep. 

8. Are the italicized parts restrictive or parenthetical? 

(1) Bion said, ^Know thyself.^ 

(2) Death is the season which brings our affections to the test. 

(3) Ores are natural compounds, being produced by nature. 



THE SEITTEl^CE — SUBORDINATE ELEMEITTS. 153 

(4) He, a professed Catholic, imprisoned the Pope. 

(5) Of all our senses, sight is the most perfect. 

(6) Her crystal lamp the evening star has lighted. 

(7) On the fifth day of the moon, which, according to the 

custom of my forefathers, I always Iceep holy. 

(8) The old oaken bucket, the iron-bound bucket, the moss- 

covered bucket, which hung in the well. 



OHAPTEE XXV. 

THE SENTENCE — INDEPENDENT ELEMENTS. 

We often use words that do not combine with other 
words to modify or limit them, yet they help to express 
our feelings, and so have emotive or rhetorical value in 
the sentence. The true type of the class is the Inter- 
jection. For the purpose of enforcing or softening, or 
otherwise affecting the assertion, many expressions are 
in a similar way interjected in what we say. 

A noun, for example, may be thus independent — that 
is, without grammatical connection: 

1. By address (vocative); as — 

I will, sir. 

Ye spirits 

That tend on mortal thoughts, unsex me here. 

2. By exclamation ; as — 

What nonsense ! 

Mortimer! Who talks of Mortimer? 

3. By pleonasm ; as — 

The Pilgrim Fathers, where are they? 

4. By absolute construction ; as — 

The signal being given, we started. 
He flies, wild terror in his looh. 

Such a word is said to be used absolutely, because, be- 
ing without any case-form or connective to denote its 

154 



THE SEKTEKCE — IKDEPEKDENT ELEMENTS. 155 

relation, it appears to stand as if ' cut loose ^ from the sen- 
tence. Nominatives absolute, however, while they do not 
grammatically depend on any other word in the sentence, 
are logically adverbial or adjective modifiers. Thus, 

Spring coming, the flowers will bloom = 
When spring comes, the flowers will bloom = 
The flowers will bloom in spring-time. 

Finally, words that are merely introductory, phrases 
and clauses that are of the general character of modals, 
distantly connected perhaps with the assertion, yet un- 
necessary to the sense, and unrelated, are treated as 
grammatically independent: 

(1) There is no place like home. 

(2) What is there that he can not do? 

(3) His conduct, generally speaking, was good. 

(4) To tell the truth, I doubted my ability to succeed. 

(5) Well, this is the forest of Arden. 

(6) The ship leaps, as it were, from billow to billow. 

(7) Religion — who candouht it? — is the noblest of themes. 

The pupil must not fall into the error of judging that 
interruptive or parenthetical parts are always independent. 
The proper test is, not the accident of position or punctu- 
ation, but the connection of thought. Thus, the follow- 
ing parenthesis 1 is both grammatically and logically related 
to the leading verb: 

I do beseech you 
(Chiefly that I may set it in my prayers), 
What is your name ? 

Often the only office of the curves is emphasis. They 
serve merely to draw particular attention to the matter 

1 Greek jpa/'a, aside, and enthesis, insertion; a word, phrase, or statement 
inserted aside in a sentence complete without it. 



156 LESSOKS IK EI^GLISH GKAMMAR. 

within them. Again, ' cried ' and ' said/ in the following 
passages are equally governing verbs: 

(1) *Make me a cottage in the vale,' she cried^ 
' Where I may mourn and pray. ' 

(2) And all his sorrow to the moon he told, 
And said, ' Surely when thou art horned new, 
I shall be glad — if all the world be true. ' 

The order of the latter is usual; of the former, trans- 
posed. To say that any organic relation is affected by the 
transposition, is absurd. Without changing the sense or 
metre, we can read: 

*And sure,' he said, 'When thou art horned new \ 
I shall be glad — if all the world be true.' 

Another erroneous notion is, that it is without gram- 
matical connection in such forms as — 

(1) It can not be that thou art gone 

(2) Is it so small a thing, 

To have enjoyed the sun : 
To have lived light in the spring; 
To have loved, to have thought, to have done ? 

So far from being a superflous element, '^it^ is here an 
essential — the grammatical subject, with which the clause 
in (1) and the infinitives in (2) are logically in apposition. 
The appositives explain what the pronoun vaguely or 
indefinitely represents. A similar construction is seen in 
^I, John, am going ^; or ^I, Alexander, king of Mace- 
donia, make this decree.^ Compare with either: 

It, to see the sun, is pleasant = 
It is pleasant to see the sun. 

This task, to teach the young, is delightful = 
It is a delightful task to teach the young. 



THE SENTEl^CE — IKDEPEN^DENT ELEMENTS. 157 

EXEBCISES. 

Resolve the following into pri7icipal, subordinate, and independent 
elements; that is, subject and predicate of the sentence as a 
wJiole, the modifiers of each, and parts (where there are such) 
that are neither principal nor subordinate. Be careful to dis- 
criminate, in cases, between grammatical independence and 
logical dependence: 

1. 'Tis the mind that makes the body rich. 

2. Now, Hamlet, where 's Polonius? 

3. God willing, I shall persevere in my attempt. 

4. Properly speaking, there is no such thing as chance. 

5. He that hath ears to hear, let him hear. 

6. Adders and Serpents, let me breathe awhile ! 

7. It is a good thing to give thanks unto the Lord. 



CHAPTEE XXYL 

THE SENTENCE — CLASSIFICATION. 

As to structure: A sentence that expresses only a 
single act of thought is said to be simple. There may be 
several things of which something is asserted, and the sub- 
ject is then said to be compound: 

Hope and fear are the bane of human life. 

There may be several things asserted of the subject, and 
the predicate is then said to be compound: 

Charity hopeth all things, helieveth all things, endureth all things. 

The modifiers may be compound: 

A diligent and prudent man will be successful. 

Parts which do not modify each other are said to be 
co-ordinate, — that is, of equal order or rank; as in the 
preceding sentence, or in the following: 

The coach will leave the city — in the morning — hefore sunrise. 

The test of a simple sentence is, that it comprises only 
words and phrases. 

If the sentence is of the form, '^When the sun rose, the 
ship sailed,^ it is no longer simple, since it contains two 
acts of thought, — two distinct subjects, '^sun^ and '^ship,^ 
and two distinct predicates, ''rose^ and ^sailed,'' yet so put 
together as to form a whole. Another peculiarity is, that 
the first part, ^ when the sun rose,^ indicates the time of 

.15a 



THE SENTEl^CE — CLASSIFICATION. 159 

sailing, and so modifies ^sailed' as a temporal adverb. 
Such a sentence is said to be complex, i Hence, a complex 
sentence consists of two or more simple sentences, one of 
which is princi^Dal and the others (clauses) subordinate. 

If the sentence is of the form, ' The sun rose, and the 
ship sailed,^ it is neither simple nor complex. It is not 
simple, because it contains more than one combination of 
subject and predicate; it is not complex, because the state- 
ments composing it are grammatically independent of each 
other — neither modifies the other. Such a sentence is 
said to be compound. ^ Hence a compound sentence 
consists of two or more co-ordinate sentences. The co-or- 
dinate parts of a compound sentence are called its memhers. 
The members themselves may be simple or complex: 

(1) One generation blows bubbles, and another bursts them. 

(2) This part of knowledge is growing, and it will continue to 

grow till the subject is exhausted. 

The simple sentence with compound subject or predi- 
cate is often said to be a contracted equivalent, giving the 
meaning of two sentences in one. Thus, 

I saw Fannie and Jessie = 

I saw Fannie and I saw Jessie. 

The sentence, however, can not always be so resolved: 

Two and three are five. 

James and John carried the pail. 

As to use: A sentence that merely asserts a fact or 
states a truth is declarative; as, 

1 Latin con, with, and plectere, to twist, = to twist together, 
^ Latin con, with, and ponere, to place, = to place together. 



160 LESSOiiTS IK ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The quality of mercy is not strained. 
Rose a nurse of ninety years; 
Set his child upon her knee. 

The subject of assertion is sometimes made the subject 
of inquiry. The sentence is then interrogative, formerly 
styled direct when it could be answered by ' yes " or ^ no '; 
and indirect when it could not be so answered; the first 
being introduced by the verb or its auxiliary, the second 
by some interrogative term — pronoun, adjective, or adverb: 

Have you seen Henry? 
Who defeated Burgoyne? 
Where was he defeated? 
Which book have you? 

In point of fact, however, these are all of the direct form, 
and a proper indirect question is a dependent one — a 
clause that involves a question without actually putting it: 

Forbear to ask what to-morrow will bring forth. 

The sentence may be intended to originate some act, 
and it is then said to be imperative — the mode of its 
principal verb: 

(1) Disturb his hours of rest with restless trances; 

Afflict him in his bed with bedrid groans. 
(3) Forgive me. 
(3) Let us sing the praises of the King of Glory. 

Other and stronger forms of expressing obligation or com- 
pulsion are made by the use of ^ shall ^ and ' must ': 'You 
shall go/ ' You must go.' 

The form in (3) is sometimes abridged by dropping the 
verb Met' [= permit], changing the object to the subject 
nominative, and the dependent infinitive to a finite; 



THE SEI^TElsrCE — CLASSIFICATION. 161 

Sing we the praises of our God. 
Come one, come all. 
Somebody call my wife. 
Ruin seize thee, ruthless king! 

Since the imperative is the form of entreaty or desire, as 
well as of command, there is no valid objection to calling 
these exceptional forms imperative sentences, and their 
verbs imperatives of the first or third person to agree with 
their nominative subjects. This seems preferable to ex- 
panding them into 'Let ruin [to] seize thee,^ or 'May ruin 
seize thee,^ etc. 

Any sentence that gives passionate expression to hope, 
joy, desire, fear, anger, grief, or pain, is exclamative , 

How poor, how rich, how abject, how august, 
How complicate, how wonderful is man! 

Generally it partakes of the interrogative form, and is 
introduced by ' who," ' what," or ' how": 

Wlio would have thought it ! 
Wliat a piece of work is man! 
How grandly he moves! 

Exclamative sentences must be carefully distinguished 
from exclamative phrases. 

The same sentence may be in one class and another in 
different uses. Thus: 

Shut the door Imperative in form and meaning. 

Shut the door? .... Imperative in form, hut interrogative. 
Shut the door! .... Imperative in form, hut exclamative. 

How he shut the door ! Exclamative in form and 

meaning. 

Henry is well Declarative in form and meaning. 

Henry is well ? . . . Formally declarative, logically interroga- 
tive. 
Is Henry well? ..... Interrogative in form and meaning. 



162 LESSORS IK EKGLISH GRAMMAE. 

The character of the sentence, as a whole, is deter- 
mined by the essential part of it. Thus, though the fol- 
lowing lines contain independent, exclamative elements, 
the leading proposition is interrogative : 

What! you, that loved! 

And I, that loved ! 

Shall we begin to wrangle? 

Similarly, this line is declarative, though it includes an 
imperative clause: 

Full loud she sang: ' Come hither, love, to me.' 

EXERCISES. 

1. In the following, distinguish phrases and clauses from sentences: 

(1) The anchor clung. (2) His food with his trunk. (3) That 
your sister has returned. (4) But I am also a man. (5) 
Support of Troy! (6) We must conquer. (7) Go. (8) 
Not to know me. (9) As good for a sick man. (10) A 
peace which consults the good of both parties. (11) 
Whose hat is this? (12) Whose hat he took. (13) And 
there was light. (14) Too gay for an old man. (15) 
How long did he stay ? 

2. Classify the following sentences (1) as to structure, (2) as to use: 

(1) They devoured the earth like an army of locusts. (2) He 
asked, 'How came I to do this?' (3) It is too stormy 
for the boat to leave to-night. (4) What kind of people 
first inhabited England? (5) Who ever achieved any- 
thing great in letters, arts, or arms, who was not ambi- 
tious? (6) How many soldiers were killed in battle? 
(7) We know not whence or whither it goes. (8) Come 
as the winds come when navies are stranded. (9) Slow, 
melting strains their queen's approach declare. (10) 
Morning dawned, and all fears were dispelled. (11) 
When morning dawned, all fears were dispelled. (12) 
Forbid it, Almighty God! (13) I lisped in numbers. 



THE SEiq-TENCE— CLASSIFICATION. 163 

for the numbers came. (14) Having ridden up to the 
spot, the enraged officer struck the unfortunate man 
dead with a single blow of his sword. (15) Life is real, 
life is earnest. (16) God sustains and governs the world. 
(17) We submit to the society of those who can inform 
us, but we seek the society of those we can inform. (18) 
Having decided what was to be done, he did it with 
might and main. (19) After performing these good 
offices, the stranger left. (20) When he had performed 
these good offices, he left. (21) He performed these 
good offices, and left. (22) The ship left at sunrise. (23) 
The ship left at the rising of the sun. (24) The ship left 
when the sun rose. (25) The sun rose, and the ship left. 
(26) For me to labor and for you to be idle would be 
unjust. (27) For me to labor while you are idle would 
be unjust. 

3. Compose three complex interrogative sentences, and let the de- 

pendent clause denote time. 

4. Compose three exclamative phrases, and three exclamative sen- 

tences. 

5. Compose three compound sentences, in two of which one member 

shall be interrogative. 

6. Compose causal clauses to limit the following statements: 

(1) We left the city. (2) Cultivate agreeable manners. (3) Be 
slow to promise. (4) Improve your time. (5) Never 
Teveal secrets. 

7. Compose conditional clauses, to limit the following : 

(1) We shall go. (2) The ice will melt. (3) He can perform 
the task. (4) The lecture will be postponed. (5) We 
shall be lost. 

8. Compose three simple sentences with compound subjects, and 

three with compound predicates. 

9. Compose five sentences containing the present progressive indica- 

tive, active voice. 

10. Five containing the past progressive active. 



164 LESSONS Ilf Ei^GLISH GEAMMAR. 

1 1 . Five containing the past perfect active. 

12. Five containing the past perfect passive. 

13. Five containing the future perfect passive. 

14. Six illustrating the correct use of 'may,' 'might,' 'can,' 'could,' 

'would,' ' should.' 

15. Compose five sentences containing the nominative absolute, then 

expand the absolute phrases into clauses. 

16. Compose a compound sentence, each of whose members shall be 

complex. 

17. Compose five sentences containing adverbial clauses of purpose, 

then abridge the clauses into infinitive phrases. 

18. Change from the interrogative to the declarative form: 

(1) When can their glory fade? (2) these women! these 
women! Could that girl have been playing off any of 
her coquettish tricks? Was her encouragement of the 
poor pedagogue all a mere sham to secure the conquest 
of his rival? Heaven only knows, not I! (3) And for 
what is all this appearance of bustle and terror? Is it 
because anything substantial is expected? (4) And 
where is he to exert his talents? At liome, to be sure, 
for where else can he obtain a profitable credit for their 
exertion ? 



CHAPTER XXTIL 

THE SENTENCE — ANALYSIS. 

The process of breaking up a sentence into its com- 
ponent parts is called Analysis, i The example should 
be first examined to see whether it is simple, complex, or 
compound. If simple, distinguish (1) the subject; (2) the 
modifiers of the subject; (3) the predicate, whether simple 
or composite verb, or copula and its complement; (4) 
modifiers of the predicate. 

The analysis of a complex sentence differs from that of 
a simple one in no respect, save that clauses do the duty 
of single words or phrases, and, having been treated first 
as single parts of speech, are in turn to be resolved into 
their elements. If the sentence is compound, its co-ordi- 
nate sentences (members) are to be analyzed separately: 

(1) The house fell 

a7id 
great was the fall thereof. 

(2) He goes, 

hut 

it is intended that I should remain 

\= it, that I should remain, is intended.] 

Words omitted should be supplied. Thus, 
He is as tall as I [am tall]. 
I will go, if [it is] possible. 
Oh, [if] might I see hell and return again, how happy were I then! 

* Greek ana, up, and lusis, loosing. 

1G5 



166 



LESSORS IK ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



With the view of having some general form, sufficient 
to secure a well-arranged statement of construction, the 
following models are suggested: 

1 . The potent rod of Amram's son in Egypt's evil day, 
Waved round the coast, up-called a pitchy cloud 
Of locusts, warping in the eastern wind. 



CLASS. 


SUBJECT. 


MODIFIERS. 


PREDICATE. 


OB.J. MOD. 


ADV. MOD. 


Simple 
Declarative 


rod 


the, 

potent, 

of Amram's 

son, 

waved 

round 

the 

coast. 


up-called 


a 
pitchy 
cloud 

of 

locusts, 

warping 

in the 

eastern 

wind 


in 

Egypt's 

evil 

day 



2. When I heard that the train had started before I had 
arrived at the station where we had agreed to meet, I at 
once telegraphed. 



CLASS. 


SUBJECT. 


MODIFIERS. 


PREDICATE. 


OBJ. MOD. 


ADV. MOD. 


Complex 
Declarative 


I 




telegraphed 




at once, 

when I 

... to meet 


Prin.Sen.= 












/ telegraphed 
at once. 


(( 




(( 




(( 


Clauses: 

1st degree = 
ivhen I 
heard 


I 




heard 


that the 

train 

had started 

before 
... to meet 


when 


2d degree= 

that the 

train had 

started. 


train 


the 


had started 


• 


before I 

arrived at 

the station 

... to meet 


3d degreeii: 

before I 

arrived 

at the 

station 


I 




arrived 




at the station 

where ... to 

meet 


4th degree = 

where we 

had agreed 

to meet 


we 




had agreed 




to meet 
where. 



THE SEi^TElSrCE — ANALYSIS. 



167 



3* I am monarch of all I survey, 

My right there is none to dispute; 
From the centre all round to the sea, 
I am lord of the fowl and the brute. 



CLASS. 


SUB- 
JECT. 


MODIFIERS. 


PREDICATE. 


MODIFIERS. 


Compound 
Declarative 

Members : 

1. I am 

monarch 
ofalll 
survey. 

Clause — 

[that] I 
survey. 

2. My right 
there is 
none to 
dispute 

3. I am 

lord of 
the fowl 

and the 
brute from 
the centre 
all round 
to the sea. 


I 

I 
none 

I 


to dispute 
my right 


am 
monarch 

survey- 
is 

am 
lord 


OBJECTIVE. 

[that] 


ADVERBIAL. 

from the 

centre, all 

round to 

the sea. 


ADJECTIVE. 

Of all 
I survey 

of the 
fowl and 
the brute 



4. That orbed maiden with white fire laden, 
Whom mortals call the moon, 
Glides glimmering o'er my fleece-like floor, 
By the midnight breezes strewn. 

A complex declarative sentence. 

(1) maiden subject. 

(2) glides predicate. 



168 



LESSOl^S IK El^GLISH GEAMMAK. 



(3) 



(4) 



a that orbed ^ ^. ^. i 

, . - . , , . „ r adiective enlargements 

laden with white fire > 

c whom mortals call the moon ) 

[d) mortals subject of c. 

(e) call predicate of c. 

(/) whom the moon . objective enlargement of c. 

is) glimmering 

ill) o'er my fleece-like floor, 

strewn by the midnight 

breezes 



adverbial enlargements 
of (2). 



In the following diagrammed analyses, a single bracket, 
[, is used for subject and predicate; and two [ ] for words 
supplied. A bar, |, separates a subordinate element. A 
brace, \, cuts off two or more subordinate elements that, 
with respect to each other, are co-ordinate. Compound 
elements are unified, as in examples 9, 1 1 , 1 2, 1 9. A 
conjunction is underscored. A word doing double duty, 
as a relative pronoun or a conjunctive adverb, is under- 
scored twice. Curves, or marks of parenthesis, ( ), en- 
close independent elements. An underscore and a curve 
are used to connect a modifier with its base under the 
circumstances shown in 5, 8, 14, and 19. The first word 
of a sentence is capitalized wherever it may fall in the 
diagram. 



1. Why will people exaggerate ? 



people 

will exaggerate | Why? 



2, For us to know our faults is profitable. 



For us I to know | faults | our 
is profitable 



THE SEi^TEl^CE — AKALTSIS. 



169 



3. The pitch of the musical note depends upon the rapidity of 
vibration. 



.^ ^ , The (., 

pitch ^ „ ^ \tlOLQ 

' of note < 

(^musical 



( the 
depends I upon rapidity < „ . 

< of vibration 



4. It is easy to find fault. 



It I to find I fault 
is easy 



5. Genius can breathe freely only in the atmosphere of freedom. 
Genius 



r freely 

I in atmosphere 



can breathe -;! r "' , fthe 

!1 



(of freedom 



(only 



6. They told him to go to the city. 



They 



told 



J [to] him 
(to go I to city I the 



7. They expected him to come home. 



They 

expected | him | to come | home 



8. He is certainly on the verge of madness. 



He 



fthe 
IS on verge < „ 
-, . . , of madness 
(certainly '^ 



170 



LESSORS I>r Eiq-GLISH GEAMMAR. 



9. All forms of the lever, and all the principal kinds of hinges, are 
found in the body. 



forms 



All 
' of lever the 
all 
the 

principal 
of hinges 



are found | in body [ the 



kinds 



10. The hero of the Book of Job came from a strange land and a 
strange parentage. 

[The 



hero 



t 



of Book of Job 



(the 



from laud 
and 



(a 



( strange 
came -i nuu 

■ of parentage \ 

I Isl 



I strange 



11. The horses and the cattle were fastened in the same stables and 
were fed with abundance of hay and grain. 

horses | The 

'^ ;^ 

03 : cattle | the 

were fastened | in stables i 

I < same 

G I f of hay 

;were fed | with abundance ^ and 

[of] grain 



12. At the opening of the thirteenth century, Oxford took and held 
rank with the greatest schools of Europe. 



Oxford 
took 



( the 
At opening < ^ ( the 

'^^""^^^^n thirteenth 



held 



rank | with schools ] 



the 
I greatest | of Europe 



THE SEN^TENCE — Al^ALYSIS. 

13. Gold is heavier than iron. 
Gold 



is heavier 



than 

iron 

[is heavy] 



m 



14. He were no lion, were not Romans hinds. 

He 

were lion ( no 
- ? Lif] 

Romans 

were hinds 

- (not 



15. That the earth is a sphere is easily proved. 
That 

earth | the 
is sphere | a 

is proved | easily 



16# 'Where is Abel, thy brother?' smote the ears of the guilty Cain. 



'Abel I brother | thy 
is I Where?' 



smote ears - „ _ . ( the 

( of Cam i 
— I guilty 



17. Religion — who can doubt it? — is the noblest of themes for the 
exercise of intellect. 



(Fwho \ 

Lean doubt | it?y 



I Religion 

I is noblest-^ """, t the 

I — ( of themes I for exercise < 



the 



of intellect 



172 LESSOi^S IJN" ENGLISH GRAMMAK. 

18. Be temperate in youth, or you will have to be abstinent in old 



[you] 

Be temperate | in youth 
or 



you 

will have | to be abstinent j in age | old 



19o Once there was a quarrel between the eyes and the nose about the 
spectacles, which (so said the nose) were undoubtedly in- 
tended for, him and not for his two neighbors, the eyes. 



quarrel 



eyes 



the 



between 



nose 



about spectacles 
was I Once (there) 



C3 

P^ I the 
the 
which 



/ Fnose I the 



\l 



said I so 



were intended ■ 



EXERCISES. 



undoubtedly 
for him 



his 



for neighbors -{ two 

eyes | th e 

(not, 



Classify and diagram the sentences in — 

(1) A rich gouty man troubled with disease in his feet, went to 
a physician distinguished for his skill, promising to do 
exactly what the physician ordered, if only he would 
cure him. Seeing his patient deprived of the use of his 
feet, and too lazy to use them, the physician took him 
up into a room containing no chair, couch, or scat of 
any kind, and having a floor lined with iron. There he 



' Or refer it to the supplied ' were intended.' 



THE SENTEI^CE — AJ^^ALYSIS. 173 

left him and went out, locking the door behind him. 
Presently the rich man found his feet growing unpleas- 
antly hot. Irritated at this he called out, but no one 
answered. Hobbling to the door on his crutches, he 
found it locked. By this time his feet, heated by the 
hot iron floor, pained him so much that he began to raise 
them, lifting first one, then the other, at first slowly, 
then more and more quickly. In this way, forced to 
use his legs, he found the use oi them grow more and 
more easy, and was cured against his will. 

(2) The Sun and the Wind were one day disputing which was 

the stronger. On seeing a traveler approach, 'Cease 
your bawling,' said the Sun to the Wind, 'and let us 
decide the question by doing and not by talking. Who- 
ever can succeed in taking away that traveler's cloak 
shall be confessed to be the conqueror : what do you say 
to deciding thus?' 'I agree,' cried the Wind; 'but would 
you mind my trying first ? ' ' Not a bit, ' said the other ; 
and straightway the Wind set to work. First he tried 
blowing quietly, then more furiously; and at last he 
blew so loud that you could not have heard yourself 
speak for his howling ; but all his blustering was in vain. 
So far from giving up his cloak, the traveler only drew 
it closer round him. Now it was the Sun's turn to try. 
He began by driving away the clouds that the Wind had 
gathered : then he warmed the air with his bright face 
till the traveler was forced to loosen his cloak because of 
the heat. On seeing this, the Sun redoubled his efforts, 
till at last, fainting with the heat, the weary traveler 
flung himself on a bank to rest, after stripping himself 
of his cloak and coat as well. 

(3) A little boy running carelessly along the street, knocked 

against an old woman carrying a basket of eggs on her 
head. Down fell the basket smashing all the eggs. The 
thoughtless boy at first ran on ; but, looking round and 
seeing the people staring and the old woman beginning 



174 LESSOKS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

to cry, he turned back, saying, 'I am very sorry; I 
would not have knocked against you if I had seen you.' 
' Yes, master, ' replied the old woman, looking sadly at 
the fragments of her broken eggs lying about the dirty 
pavement, 'but your sorrow wiU not mend my eggs, 
nor feed my grandchildren waiting for bread at home.' 



OHAPTEE XXYni. 

THE SENTENCE — GOVERNMENT AND CONCORD. 

When one word requires another to be put in a par- 
ticular form, as ' He struck me,' it is said to govern it, and 
the requirement is called government. When govern- 
ment inyolves a correspondence of inflection — as ^ The boy 
run-s/ ^The boy-s run^ — it is called concord, i 

But as the English sentence is now constructed with so 
little dependence upon formal change, government and 
concord must be held to regard the thought as well as the 
outward sign. Agreeably to this extended sense of the 
terms, we proceed to enumerate the chief principles regu- 
lating the union of words : 

1 . The subject of a sentence is in the nominative case. 

This rule, obviously, has its chief application to the 
pronouns. It is seldom violated except by the untaught. 
Mistakes like (1) and (2) are of the grossest kind; (3) 
occurs most frequently in elliptical sentences: 

(1) Them are good. 

(2) John and me went. 

(8) Is she taller than me [is tall]? 

The following may be more easily pardoned: 

This is a man whom [who] I think deserves encouragementr 

^Latin Concordia, agreement. 

175 



176 LESSOl^S IK EIS'GLISH GEAMMAR. 

2. The subject of the root-infinitive is in the objective 

case. 1 

I saw Mm go. 

Let us rise. 

For me to act thus is base ingratitude. ^ 
Not — 

Let he who made thee, [to] answer that. 

When the subject of the infinitive coincides with that of 
of the sentence^ the case is nominative; as, ^He was seen 
to depart.' 

3. A noun or pronoun, directly limiting another noun, 
is iii the possessive case. 

And far by Ganges' banks at night, 
Is heard the tiger's roar. 

I was opposed to his going. 

The moon's attracting the water causes the tides. 
Ii is caused by the earth's revolving on its axis. 

This rule is modified, as we have seen, by two princi- 
ples, — clearness and euphony. The first forbids putting 
the possessive sign on a word far removed from the base of 
the phrase: 

Maximilian the Emperor's palace. 
. The Emperor Maximilian's palace. 
Her Majesty Queen Victoria's government. 

The second governs everywhere in language, however sub- 
ordinately. Thus, in a series of possessives denoting 

1 The subject of the infinitive may be regarded, conventionally, as the 
object of the principal verb. Logically, it is but a part — the base — of the 
complete object. (See Whitnet/s Essentials of English Grammar, p. 217.) 

2 There being no antecedent term of relation, we prefer to regard the 
preposition in such constructions as without governing power, having a 
merely introductory function. The omission of 'for 'gives the Latin idiom: 
Facinus est mnclri civem Bomanum [A Roman citizen to be bound (That a 
Roman citizen should be bound, For a Roman citizen to be bound) is a crime]. 
—Cicero. 



THE SENTENCE — GOVEKNMENT AND CONCORD. 177 

common possession, the sign is annexed but once : ' James, 
Peter, and Henry^'s father/ But separate possession: 
^ James^'si, Peter's, and Henry's father/ Eegular construc- 
tion would require, ^This book is your'\ but, to avoid 
harshness, an illogical but euphonious s is added. Chaucer 

writes: 

I wol be youi' in alle that ever I may. 

Again, regularity would require, ' a friend of me,' ' that 
farm of Johnson,' ^that ugly face of him'; but ^friend of 
mine,^ 'farm of Johnson's,' 'face of his,' have a more 
pleasing sound. 

4. The ohjcd of an action or limit of a prejposition is in 
the objective case. 

"Who fed me from her gentle hreast 
And hushed me in her arms to rest, 
And on my cheeks sweet kisses pressed? 

This rule appears in pronouns only. It is not likely to be 
violated except when the object is at a distance from the 
governing word: 

Thou, Nature, partial Nature, I arraign. 

Who should I meet the other day but my old friend? 

Who did you get that book from? 

The case of the indirect object, formerly distinguished by 
a dative ending, might better be called dative-objective: 

I made Mm a coat [= made a coat fo?' him]. 
They paid him his wages [= paid wages to him.] 
Forgive us our debts [= forgive to us]. 
She asked -^m his name [= asked of him]. 

The preposition, though it may be tised to bring out the 

^ ' Charles's affairs.' — Prescotf. ' Louis's reign.'— JfacawZay. ' King James'? 
'Bible:— G.F.Marshr 



178 LESSONS IN" ENGLISH GRAMMAK. 

dative relation, is not (if unexpressed) to be considered 
left out, any more than ^ of Ms to be understood in ' God^s 
love''= Love of God. 

We have elsewhere spoken, also, of the adverbial use of 
the objective to express time, space, and value. 

5. Appositives, assumptive or predicative, are m the 
same case as the nouns they modify. 

(1) Peter the hermit preached the first Crusade. 

(2) Ask the murderer — him who has steeped his hands in blood. 

(3) It is /. 

(4) Whom did you think it to be? ¥ 

(5) They elected him [to be] president, 

(6) They named him [to be] John. 

(7) "We will have him as our leader. 

(8) Which boasts two various powers in one, 

To ciU as well as shine. 

Not — 

This shy creature, my brother says, is me. 

If there is one character more base than another, it is him. 

The appositive relation in (1), (2), and (8) is assumed; in 
(3) it is asserted; and the character of (3) shades off into 
that of (4), (5), (G), and (7). 'llim [to be] president,' 
for instance, resembles ^He is president.' Observe the use 
of 'as' in (7) and the co-ordinating use of *as well as' 
in (8). Similarly, 'The Puma, or American tion, is a 
native of South America.' 

6. Pronoims agree in gender, number, and person 
icith the nouns ivhich they represent. 

Ye stones, in which my gore will not sink, but 
Reek up to heaven! Ye skies, which will receive it! 
Thou Sun, which shin'st on these things ! and Tho^i 
Who kindlest and who quenchest suns ! attest. 



THE SENTENCE — GOVERNMENT AND CONCORD. 179 

A pronoun relating to several antecedents of different 
persons or genders, should agree with tlie first person 
rather than the second or third, and with the second 
person rather than the third, and with the masculine 
rather than the feminine: 

(1) John and I will take our books. 

(2) You and Emily are learning your lesson. 

(3) If anyone in this audience dissents, let Mm rise. 

When the reference is to two or more singular objects, 
the pronoun is plural if they are taken collectively, as in 
(1) and (2); but singular if they are taken distributively, 
as 'Every man and boy took off his hat.' 

A collective noun taken as singular is of neuter gender; 
taken as plural, it requires the plural pronoun: 

The army honors itself. 

Can Parliament be so dead to *7s dignity? 

The clergy began to withdraw themselves. 

In personification, the gender is lawfully changed: 

The oak shall send Jiis roots abroad and pierce thy mould. 

A pronoun with two or more singular antecedents, con- 
nected by 'or' or 'nor,' must be singular. If one is plu- 
ral, it should be placed last, and the pronoun should agree 
with it: 

When he shoots a squirrel, a rabbit, or a bird, he gives it away. 
Neither the mother nor her children were aware of tJieir 
danger. 

The use of the relative ' that ' for ' who ' or ' which ' has 
been mentioned. It should be so used (1) when there are 
two antecedents, one requiring 'who' and the other 
'which'; (2) after the intcrrc[;ative 'who,' to avoid repe- 
tition; (3) after 'same ' and the superlative degree: 



180 LESSOl^S IK ENGLISH GRAMMAK. 

(1) I met the man and the dog that you saw. 

(2) Who that heard his eloquence could resist it ? 

(3) It was the most beautiful day that I had ever known. 

(4) It was the same story that I had read the week before. 

A few examples will suggest the most frequent and im- 
portant errors in the use of the English pronoun: 

(1) She studied his countenance like an inscription, and de- 

ciphered each rapt expression that crossed it, and stored 
them \i(] in her memory. 

(2) Each of the sexes should keep within its particular bounds, 

and content themselves to excel within their respective 
districts. 

(3) He that pricketh the ear maketh it to show her knowledge. 

(4) Who ever thinks of learning the grammar of their tongue, 

before they are very good grammarians? 

(5) Every persoii's happiness depends in part upon the respect 

they meet in the world. 

It may be said that (5) illustrates the preference of the 
plural when both genders are involved. But it seems quite 
as proper that ^his^ should be applied to both^ as that 
'man^ in a generic sense should include both male and 
female. Doubtless the plural is often used merely as a 
mode of getting out of the difficulty. Sometimes strict- 
ness is sought to be preserved by the use of ' 7ie or she/ 
but this is felt to be cumbersome: 

The institution of property, reduced to its essential elements, 
consists in the recognition, in each person, of a right to the 
exclusive disposal of what he or she has produced by their 
own exertions. — J. S. Mill. 

7. Adjectives, so far as they are subject to formal 
change or to a restrictive application, conform to the nouns 
which they modify. 



THE SENTENCE — GOVEENMENT AND CONCORD. 181 

Hence the following sentences are incorrect: 

(1) Those kind of things. 

(2) These kind of sufferings. 

(3) A feeble senate and [an] enervated people. 

(4) Blessed be the man that provideth for the sick and \the\ 

needy. 

(5) A cherubim. 

(6) A phenomena. 

The omission of the Article in (3) and (4) implies but a 
single object of thought^ whereas in each there are plainly 
two. ^A/ moreover, if held to be understood, would not 
be the proper form to use before ' enervated.^ In (5) and 
(6), there is an inconsistency of number, the plural instead 
of the singular — '^cherub/ ^ phenomenon.^ A period of 
time, however, may be treated as a unit: 

This many summers on a sea of glory. 

8. A verJ) agrees with its subject in number and person, 

I wait. 

He waits. 

Ye stars, which are the poetry of heaven. 

Two or more singular subjects connected by ^and^ require 
a plural verb; connected by ^or^ or '^nor,' they take a verb 
in the singular: 

Mars and Jupiter have been visible this week. 
To be or not to be is the question. 
Neither he nor his brother has the book. 

In the application of this rule, primary regard must be 
paid to the meaning. It will thus appear that the follow- 
ing are correct: 

'The scholar and the poet was also the Christian and the 
patriot. (DifiEerent designations of the same object.) 



182 LESSOKS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAK. 

* Each man, each woman, each child, has a duty to discharge. 

(Compound subject taken distributively. Elliptical usage: 
'Each man [has], each woman [has].') 

* The wheel and axle was out of repair,' (The two things named 

make a unit by their combination.) 

*Why is dust and ashes proud.' (Two words used for one 
meaning.) 

' The^ee^ is under orders to set sail.' (Predicate applies to the 
whole mass.) 

'A considerable nuTuber were induced to quit the body.' (Pre- 
dicate applies to the individuals of the collection acting 
separately.) 

'The wages of sin is death.' (Form plural, but meaning 
singular: 'The consequence of sin is death.') 

* Whether thou or I am in fault.' ^He or they are to be pro- 

moted.' (Virtually contracted co-ordinate sentences; verb 
agrees with the nearest subject.) 

Violations of the rule often arise from a negligent refer- 
ence of the verb to some nearer word that is not the real 
subject: 

The co7idition of the crops show that the country has suffered. 
It is observable that each one of the letters hear date after his 

banishment. 
Each of the ladies, like two excellent actresses, were perfect in 
their parts. 

9. In the use of irregular verbs the past tense should 
he distinguished from the past participle. 

The book lies on the shelf : it lay there a week ago, and has 
lain there ever since. 

The past participle^ unlike the simple past-tense form, is 

used passively and goes with the auxiliaries. Ignorance or 

disregard of this principle accounts for such abuse of 

grammar as — 

I seen him fall. 

John do7ie it. 



THE SEiq^TEKCE — GOVEEKMEKT AND COl^COBD. 183 

I have did it. 

We have saw Jumbo. 

He had wrote to her. 

He sent a letter ivrote on parchment. 

10. The true sense of a verh-auxiliary sliould harmonize 
with the idea to he expressed hy it. 

May is the sign of possibility or permission; can, of 

ability; and mnst, of necessity. When mere futurity is 

to be expressed, nse shall in the first person, "will in the 

second and third. When resolve or compulsion is to be 

expressed, the first person requires "will ; the second and 

third, shall. Thus 

( I shall 

Simple Future -< You will 

( He will 

I will 
Resolve or Compulsion -^ You shall 

He shall 

1 1 . The time indicated hy the tense-forms should har- 
monize with that indicated by other parts of the sentence. 

The following, therefore, are incorrect: 

(1) I expected to have found [to find] him. 

(2) I should have liked to have seen [to see] him. 

(3) I hoped that you woidd have [would] come. 

(4) He ivas [has been] absent this whole week , 

(5) If you are not careful, you might [may] fall overboard. 

(6) I shall be much gratified if jow. would [will] favor us with 

your company. 

Existing facts and general truths, however, require the 
present tense: 

He saw that virtue is advantageous. 

He believed that the earth is spherical. 



184 LESSORS IK EKGLISH GKAMMAR. 

12. In general, parts correspondent or aWke in tliought 
should he si?nilarly constructed. 

This principle forbids: 

(1) The union of the solemn and ordinary forms — 

He stoppeth not to consider his ways, and presses on thought- 
lessly to ruin. 

(2) The union of auxiliary with simple forms — 

I always have [been] and always shall he of this opinion. 

Did he not confess his fault and entreated [entreat] you to 

forgive him ? 
This may serve for almost any book that has [been], is, or 

shall he published. 

'Be' will not harmonize with 'have/ nor 'entreated' with 
'did/ nor 'published' (in the passive sense) with 'has.' 

(3) The union of singular with plural forms — 

Sparta! Sparta! why in slumbers 

Lethargic dost thoio lie? 
Awake and join thy numbers 

To Athens, old ally; 
Leonidas recalling. 

That chief of ancient song, 
Who saved ye once from falling, 

The terrible — the strong. 

(4) The union of normal with abnormal forms, and of 
dissimilar elements by co-ordinate connectives — 

He embraced the cause of liberty faintly, and pursued it with- 
out resolution [irresolutely]. 

When ignorance is not wilful and sin [sinful]. 

He begged him at the same time carefully to preserve for him 
his Highland garb and accoutrements, particularly the arms, 
curious in themselves, and to which the friendship of the 
donors gave additional value. 



THE SEKTEi^CE — GOVERKMEKT AI^D COKCORD. 185 

We have in the last example a compound modifier of 
'arms/ Of its two members, the first is a phrase, and the 
second a clause. Both should he phrases, or both clauses: 
'which were curious in themselves/ or 'rendered addi- 
tionally valuable by the friendship of the donors/ Other- 
wise, the incongruity may be avoided by the omission of 
' and/ The blunder is very common, especially with those 
who either do not perceive the true relation of parts, or 
fail to regard it. 

(5) The useless introduction of new words, and the 
improper union of correlatives — 

He was just one of those men that [whom] the country can't 
afford to lose, and whom it is so very hard to replace. 

I have amused myself prophesying, as we drove into town, how 
this ugly lot of suburbs would join with that ugly lot, and 
that there would soon be one continuous street. 

Natural language, neither bookish nor vulgar, neither redolent 
of the lamp or of the kennel. 

He neither knew the manner in which, or the place where, his 
journey might be next interrupted by his invisible attendant. 

The error in the last two is double: 'neither' should be 
put directly before the element upon which it throws its 
force, — the adjunct in the one case, the object in the 
other; and its only admissible correlative is 'nor.' 

It may be proper, at this point, to notice the prevalent 
confusion in the use of ' or ' and ' nor ' in a negative sen- 
tence. It is sometimes difficult to determine which word 
should be used to continue a negative sense after a preced- 
ing negative. Length of parts or emphasis of distinction 
would seem to give the preference to 'nor': 

The king has no arbitrary power to give him ; your Lordships 
have not; nor the Commons; nor the whole Legislature. — 
Burhe. 



186 LESSORS li^ EN^GLISH GKAMMAR. 

Yet Paul did not waste all his hours in this idle vaporing, nor 

in the pleasures of the table. — Prescott. 
I can not tell which way his Majesty went, nor whether there 

is any one with him. — Fielding. 

' Or ' may be preferable, or even necessary, if the parts are 
plainly affected by the preceding negative, if they are not 
emphatically distinguished, or if they are short and closely 
connected : 

He was certainly not very reverent in his conduct or in his 
writings. — Dea7i Alford. 

No tie of gratitude or of honor could bind him. — Macaulay. 

This was not to be ascribed chiefly or solely to political 
animosity. — Ihid. 

So long as they did not meddle with politics or religion. — 
Prescott. 

EXERCISES. 

Some of the following are correct, some are incorrect. Apply the 
preceding principles to the justification of the former and the 
correction of the latter : 

1. He wrote an history. 

2. These sort of pens are good. 

3. Them's my sentiments. 

4. Will I be there in time? 

5. If you will call I shall be happy to receive you. 

6. It was requested that no person would leave the room. 

7. I shall never see him again. 

8. I will never see him again. 

9. I will be drowned; nobody shall help me. 

10. "What a awful accident! 

11. He owned an old and new house. 

12. He drove a horse and ox. 

13. When will we go? 

14. I would not have dared done it. 

15. This is very easy done. 



SEl^TEKCE — GOVERNMEKT AKD COJSTCORD. 187 

16. He seldom or ever come here. 

17. No man ever bestowed such a gift to his kind. 

18. Was it her? 

19. The building the house is going on. 

20. Much depends on this rule being observed. 

21. Both Cato and Cicero loved their country. 

22. Every person is the architect of their own fortune. 

23. If either Nellie or Mamie is absent from her seat at 

nine to-morrow, she will be kept in. 

24. She suffers more than me. 

25. My father allowed my brother and I to accompany him. 

26. I knew it to be he. 

27. Let him be who he may. 

28. He saw a red, white, and blue flag. 

29. He saw a red, a white, and a blue flag. 

30. To a great and almost indefinite extent. 

31. The oral or written forms of a language. 

32. I'd rather not go. 

33. Of all other vices, lying is the meanest. 

34. Do you remember who he was? 

35. The society of these places are always changing. 

36. Economy, not mean savings, bring wealth. 

37. The nobility were present. 

38. Not a drum, not a funeral note was heard. 

39. They supposed it was I. 

40. The dog's ear was cut off. 

41. Whom did you send the letter to? 

42. Was John and James' confession alike? 

43. Let my soul live, and it shall praise thee. 

44. Let the House of Commons be warned — let it warn itself. 

45. The jury were dismissed. 

46. The council has chosen its president. 

47. Either he or I is right. 

48. Was I so disposed, I could not gratify you. 

49. Though he slay me, yet will I trust in him. 

50. Go and lay down. 

51. She come very soon after you had went away. 



188 LESSORS IK El^q^GLISH GRAMMAR. 

52. I had rode a short distance when the storm began to 

gather. 

63. He run till he was forced to lay down. 

54. I remember when it was laid. 

55. Between you and I, he is losing his mind. 

56. They that are diligent, I will reward. 

57. Not one in a thousand could have done so well as he. 

58. The North and South Pole. 

59. She has less friends than I. 

60. It is now five days since you have arrived. 

61. Whom are you looking for? 

62. The ends of a divine and human legislation are very 

different. 

63. The ebb and flow of tides were explained by Newton. 

64. Here come my old friend and teacher. 

65. I never have nor ever will forget it. 

66. They told me of his having failed. 

67. The building must be either a church or a school. 

68. Either you or I are to blame. 

69. The man, together with those who accompanied him, 

were killed. 

70. "When will we three meet again? 

71. He taught that the soul was immortal. 

72. The great historian and the essayist has passed away. 

73. The books were lain upon the table. 

74. Every tub must stand upon their own bottom. 

75. I am afraid of the man dying before a doctor can come. 

76. The rise and fall of nations are an interesting study. 

77. More than four-fifths of the property belongs to Prot- 

estants. 

78. The fact of me going away was of no consequence. 

79. It did him no more good than his afterward trying to 

pacify the barons with lies. 

80. No heaven nor earth have been at peace to-night. 

81. Rapt into future times the bard begun. 

82. If I stretch a catgut or any other cord between my 

fingers, I will make it smaller. 



THE SENTENCE — GOVEENMENT AND CONCOED. 189 

83. And now the years a numerous train have ran. 

84. Ethics, with atheism, are impossible. 

85. The camp was almost immediately broke up, 

86. Without having attended to this, we will be at a loss to 

understand several passages. 

87. A few months before, he was willing to have hazarded all 

the horrors of civil war. 

88. Two young men have discovered that there was no God. 

89. Everyone must be judge of their own feelings. 

90. No mightier than thyself or me. 

91. Sorrow not as them that have no hope. 

92. She was neither better bred nor wiser than you or me. 

93. Neither of which are taken into account. 

94. The fact of such an objection having been made. 

95. It was expected that his first act would have been to have 

sent for Lords Grey and Grenville. 

96. The reason is perspicuous why no French plays when 

translated have, or ever can, succeed on the English 
stage. 

97. Both minister and magistrate is compelled to choose 

between his duty and his reputation. 

98. The richness of her arms and apparel were conspicuous in 

the foremost rank. 

99. The literature of France, Germany, and England, are at 

least as necessary for a man born in the nineteenth 
century as that of Rome and Athens. 

100. Concerning some of them, little more than the names are 

to be learned from literary history. 

101. Sir Thomas More in general so writes it, although not 

many others so late as him. 

102. Homer, as well as Virgil, were transcribed and studied on 

the banks of the Rhine and Danube. 

103. America, as well as Europe, has received letters from 

the one and religion from the other. 

104. Every one of this grotesque family were the creatures of 

national genius. 



190 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAK. 

105. Those whose profession or whose reputation regulate 

public opinion. 

106. Everything that painting, music, and even place furnish, 

were called in to interest tlie audience. 

107. Few, if any town or village in the south of England, has 

a name ending in hy. 

108. Professor Sedgwick, a man of eminence in a particular 

walk of natural science, but who should not have 
trespassed into philosophy, had lately published his 
discourses. 

109. At least I am resolved that the country shall see who it 

has to thank for whatever may happen. 

110. And the persons who, at one period of their life, might 

take chief pleasure in such narrations, at another may 
be brought into a temper of high tone and acute 
sensibility. 

111. A constable will neither act cheerfully or wisely. 

112. Frequented by every fowl whom nature has taught to dip 

the wing in water. 

113. If you were here, you would find three or four in the 

parlor after dinner whom (you would say) passed their 
time agreeably. 



CHAPTER XXIX. 

THE SENTENCE— ORDER. 

Much freedom in the order of words is permitted by an 
inflected language^ because the words, wherever placed, 
show their mutual relations by their forms. In English, 
however, position is almost the only thing that shows the 
connection of parts, and the study of arrangement becomes, 
therefore, of great importance to all who would write or 
speak to the best advantage. 

1 . The usual order puts the adjective before the noun, 
the subject before the verb, and the verb before its objective 
or adverbial r}iodifier. 

(1) Every man's task is his life-preserver. 

(2) Each human soul is the first-created inhabitant of its own 

Eden. 

(3) The whole period of youth is one essentially of formation, 

edification, instruction. 

(4) Any nobleness begins at once to refine a man's features, — 

any meanness or sensuality to imbrute them. 

(5) The man who seeks one thing in life, and but one, 
May hope to achieve it before life be done ; 

But he who seeks all things, wherever he goes, 
Only reaps, from hopes which around him he sows, 
A harvest of barren regrets. 

2. Just as unusual sights and sounds are apt to impress 
us more powerfully than those with which we are familiar, 

191 



192 LESSOiiTS IN" Ei^GLISH GRAMMAR. 

SO a thought may he rendered more strihing hy using words 
out of their customary x)lace — that is, dy transjoosition, or 
inversion. 

(1) Here lies the road to Rome. 

(2) So work the honey bees. 

(3) Then shook the hills, with thunder riven. 

(4) Then shrieked the timid, and stood still the brave, 

(5) What a piece of work is man ! 

(6) How low, how little, are the crowd! 

(7) Flashed all their sabres bare. 

(8) Silver and gold have I none. 

(9) And all the air a solemn stillness holds. 

(10) ' Old man eloquent,' ' pastures new,' ' her sea-cave dim.' 

(11) Is life so dear or peace so sweet as to be purchased at the 

price of chains and slavery? 

The inversion is very often accomplished by commencing 
with an adverb, as in (1), (2), (3), (4), and (6). The 
pronoun ' it Ms frequently employed for this purpose: 

It is upon record that a battle between two armies was once 
broken off by an earthquake. 

The commonest example is the case of ' there ^: 

There lies upon the other side of the wide Atlantic a beautiful 
island, famous in story and in song. 

The transposition of the simple adjective, as in (10), makes 
an elegant poetical variety. The exclamative and the 
interrogative forms are in themselves a departure from the 
regular order; as ^ Are you coming?^ But in (5), (6), and 
(11) the transposition is for emphasis. The writer or 
speaker desiring to vary his manner or to express his 
thought more strongly, exchanges the calm for the pas- 
sionate type of sentence; or he prefers to put in the form 
of a question what he neither doubts nor expects to be 



THE SEi^TEiq^CE OEDEE. 193 

answered. This breaks up routine, arrests the attention 
as if to demand a reply, and therefore is frequently resorted 
to in oratory, as well as in all discourse where vivacity or 
force is sought (9). 

The subject is also thrown out of its usual position 
when the conjunction is suppressed in conditional clauses, 
and when '^neither" or ''nor,^ signifying ^and not/ is put 
before the verb: 

Were I in his place, I should resign. 

This was his fear, nor was the apprehension groundless. 

3. Clearness requires that modifiers should he as near 
as possible to the parts modified, 

(1) Wanted. — A young man to take charge of a pair of horses, 

of a religious turn of mind. 

(2) We have two school-rooms sufficiently large to accommodate 

four hundred pupils, three, stories high. 

(3) A child was run over by a heavy wagon, four years old, 

wearing a short pink dress and bronze boots, whose 
parents are not yet found. 

The remedy for (1) and (2) is obvious — transposition of 
the italicized modifiers. There is no sufficient remedy for 
(3) but to resolve it into separate statements. Wrong 
arrangement leads, in general, either to a wrong sense, as 
above, or to a doubtful one. Other and common instances 
of the first are: 

(1) It is also oriZy to occur three times. [. . • three times ow^y.] 
(3) It is said this can 07ily be filled in thus. [ . . . filled in 
only thus.] 

(3) Which can only be decided when those circumstances are 

known. [ • • . only when.] 

(4) The first could be only imputed to the just indignation of 

the gods. 



194 LESSOl^S IK ENGLISH GEAMMAR. 

(5) One species of bread, of coarse quality, was only allowed to 

be baked. 

(6) By greatness, I do not only mean [mean not only] the bulk 

of any single object, but the largeness of a whole view. 

(7) The distinction is observed in Frencli, but never appears 

[never] to have been made. 

(8) In all abstract cases where we merely speak of numbers the 

verb is better singular. 

(9) The beaux of that day used the abominable art of painting 

their faces, as well as the women. 
(10) It is the repetition of the period in somewhat a different 
form. 

Adverbs have been likened to sauces, which must be taken 
only with those dishes that they are designed to accompany. 
Note the difference between * I washed only my hands ' 
and ' I only washed my hands. ^ 

Especial care must be bestowed on ^either . . . or/ 
^neither . . . nor.^ Improperly placed they produce an 
ill-balanced effect, like a pair of crookedly-hung pictures: 

(1) He was neither fitted by abilities nor disposition to answer 

the wishes of his mother and sister. 

(2) He is neither disposed to sanction bloodshed nor deceit. 

(3) I am neither an ascetic in theory or in practice. 

In this connection one point remains to be considered. 
Shall we say 'the three first' or 'the first three. ^ If we 
adopt the former order, it is asked ' How can three be 
first ?^ If the latter, it seems to be implied that there is a 
second three, a third three, and so on. Difficulties attach 
to both forms, but both are proper and are used by the best 
writers. ^ 

^ Both are correct, but for different concepts. ' The first three ' expresses 
the fact that a series of consecutive numbers are arranged in groups of three 
each, of which the first group is taken; 'the three first' expresses that there 
are three consecutive series, of which the first co-ordinate numbers are taken. 



THE SENTENCE — OKDEE. 195 

4. Every pronoun slioiild have a distinct reference. 

Obscurity of reference may be avoided sometimes by 
changing the order, sometimes by changing the number of 
one of the antecedents, sometimes by substituting the 
direct for the indirect narrative i^ 

(1) The fruit was in glass cans which we ate. 

(2) The barons were summoned by their kings when they w ere 

compelled by their wants or their fears to have recourse 
to their aid. 

(3) The farmer went to his neighbor, and told him that his 

cattle were in his field. 

Better: 

(1) The fruit which we ate, was in glass cans. 

(2) The barons were summoned by their king when he was 

compelled by his wants or his fears to have recourse to 
their aid. 

(3) The farmer went to his neighbor, and said, ' Your cattle are 

in my field.' 

5. Energy is gained by a gradual ascent of thought and 

expression. This is called Climax. 2 

(1) Are they Hebrews? So am I. Are they Israelites? So am 

I. Are they ministers of Christ. I am more. 

(2) The stream of literature has swollen into a torrent — 

augmented into a river — expanded into a sea. 

That order of words, therefore, will always be most agree- 
able, where, without obscuring the sense, the most impor- 
tant ideas, the longest members, and the most sonorous 
words bring up the rear. The following can be improved: 

* The direct form gives the thought of another in his own words ; the 
indirect gives his thought only, not the words. [See pp. 203 (9), 216, 220.] 

^ Greek klimax^ a ladder, or staircase. 



196 LESSOi^S IN El^GLISH GEAMMAR. 

(1) A room comfortable and large. 

(2) It is great to labor, to suffer, to live, for great public ends. 

(3) Men of the best sense have been touched, more or less, with 

these groundless horrors and presages of futurity, upon 
surveying the most indifferent works of nature. 

Better; 

(1) A room large and comfortable. 

(2) It is great to live, to labor, to suffer, for great public ends. 

(3) Men of the best sense have, upon surveying the most indif- 

ferent works of nature, been touched more or less with 
these groundless horrors and presages of futurity. 

The practice of throwing the preposition to the end. of 
the sentence is of Saxon origin: 

The ills that flesh is heir to. — Shakespeare. 

Houses are built to live in, and not to look on. — Bacon. 

Hath God a name to curse by? — Donne. 

To find some obscure retreat to die in. — Prescott. 

A force of cultivated opinions for him to appeal to. — Arnold. 

This construction is especially adapted to familiar dis- 
course. To transpose the preposition will render the ex- 
pression more stately, but will often weaken it. 

6. Emphatic words should he placed in emphatic posi- 
tio7is, — for the most part, at the beginning or at the end of 
the sentence. 

While the beginning, as the first to strike the attention, 
is emphatic, the end, as a rule, is more so; for at the latter 
point there is an unwonted pause, the mind is detained, 
and consequently an important idea here can not but make 
the deeper impression: 

(1) On whatever side we contemplate Homer, what principally 
strikes us is his wonderful invention. 



(^) Lord help you, sir, they are not angry with one another; 
they have no cause of quarrel, but their country thinks 
that there should be a pause. 

Hence^ to emphasize the grammatical suDJect tiiiusually, 
it must be removed from its usual place. This is true 
likewise of the grammatical predicate: 

(1) Blessed are the peace-msikers. 

(2) Sad and weary was the march to Valley Forge. 

(3) Louder and louder the deep thunder rolled, as through the 

myriad halls of some vast temple in the sky ; fiercer and 
hrighter became the lightning, more and more heavily 
the rain poured down. 

It will be seen that the effect is here enhanced by the 
novelty of inversion. 

The strength of the following sentence consists largely 
in the stress which the predicate position gives to modi- 
fiers: 

A question so ahrupt^ upon a subject so momentous, requires 
consideration. 

7. Avoid ijlacing an adverh hehveen 'to' and the in- 
fiyiitive, as in Ho really Icnoiu the man.' 

EXERCISES. 

The following are miscellaneous ; amend such as are faulty, and state 
the principle involved : 

1 . Not only he found her employed, but pleased and tranquil. 

2. It is impossible continually to be at work. 

3. The same laws obtain through the whole system, most 

probably, in which we are counted. 

4. I ha\e considered the subject with a good deal of atten- 

tion, upon which I was desired to communicate my 
thoughts. 



198 LESSONS m EKGLISS GEAMMAB. 

5. Nothing which is not right can be great; nothing can be 

suitable to the dignity of the human mind which rea- 
son condemns. 

6. It is not from this world that any source of comfort can 

arise to cheer the gloom of the last hour. 

7. It is ordained by Providence that nothing shall be ob- 

tained in our present state that is truly valuable, 
except it be with difficulty and danger. 

8. "We can not doubt but all the proceedings of Providence 

will appear as equitable, when fully understood and 
completely intelligible, as now they seem irregular. 

9. He offered an apology, which being not admitted, he 

became submissive. 

1 0. The good man not only deserves the respect but the love 

of his fellow-beings. 

11. We should carefully examine into, and candidly pass 

judgment on, our faults. 

12. Gentlemen are not requested to enter the ladies' cabin 

without permission. 

1 3. All that glitters is not gold. 

14. The committee would further suggest some change in the 

internal arrangement of the building, as a large num- 
ber of seats have long been occupied by the scholars 
that have no backs. 

15. Solomon, the son of David, who built the temple at Jeru- 

salem, was the richest monarch of his age. 

16. It appears that there are, by a late calculation, nearly 

twenty-five millions of inhabitants in Great Britain 
and Ireland. 

17. Neither can we admit that he was formed by himself 

without the greatest absurdity, or by mere accident. 

18. Having not known or having not considered the subject, 

he declined expressing any opinion. 

1 9. Under all its labors, hope is the mind's solace ; and the 

situations which exclude it entirely are few. 

20. She also befooled me for, as she called it, my intended 

desperate adventure. 



THE SEKTEl^CE — ORDER. 199 

21. The possession of Jacob Torson's, the publisher, heir. 

22. These flowers smell very sweetly and look beautifully. 

23. Have you no other reason but this? 

24. The spirit, and not the letter of the law, are what we 

ought to follow. 

25. She walked with the lamp across the room still burning. 

26. Did you expect to have heard it ? 

27. He showed me two kinds, but I did not buy any of them. 

28. His honorable and amiable disposition were much praised. 

29. If we could only hold our tongues, everything will suc- 

ceed. 
30i We would be greatly mistaken, if we suppose wealth and 
rank exempt from care and toil. 

31. A great stone that I happened to find after a long search 

by the sea- shore, served me for an anchor. 

32. Oswald not only communicated a copy of his commission 

but a part of his instructions and a letter from the 
Secretary of State. 

33. Nor does this false modesty expose us only to such actions 

as are indiscreet. 

34. The knight, seeing his habitation reduced to so small a 

compass, and himself in a manner shut out of his own 
house, upon the death of his mother, ordered all the 
apartments to be flung open. 

35. When I hear a person use a queer expression, or pro- 

nounce a name in reading differently from his 
neighbors. 

36. The smooth monotony of the leading religious topics, as 

managed by the French orators, under the treatment 
Jeremy Taylor, receives at each turn of the sentence a 
new flexure. 

37. I remember when the French band of the ' Guides ' were 

in this country, reading in the ' Illustrated Xews.' 

38. He left the room very slowly repeating his determination 

not to obey. 

39. Hence the despotic state will be generally successful, if a 

contest occurs, in the outset. 



200 LESSORS IK El^GLISH GRAMMAK. 

40. One species of bread, of coarse quality, was only allowed 

to be baked. 

41. I have now and then inserted in the text, characters of 

books that I have not read, on the faith of my 
guides. 

42. Wolsey left at his death many buildings which he had 

begun, in an unfinished state, and which no one ex- 
pects to see complete. 

43. The style is uncouth and hard; but with great defects of 

style, which should be the source of perpetual delight, 
no long poem will be read. 

44. I shall have a comedy for you, in a season or two at farth- 

est, that I believe will be worth you acceptance. 

45. He blew out his brains after bidding his wife good-bye 

with a gun. 

46. A piano for sale by lady about to cross the Channel in an 

oak case with carved legs. 

47. The Moor seizing a bolster, full of rage and jealousy, 

smothers her. 

48. Sir Morton Peto spoke of the notion that the national 

debt might be repudiated with absolute contempt. 

49. People have been crying out that Germany never could 

be an aggressive power a great deal too soon. 

50. An unquestioned man of genius. 

51. A master who is essentially a crammer can not be pre- 

vented from continuing to cram by any power on 
earth. 

52. They followed the advance of the courageous party, step 

by step, through telescopes. 
♦ 53. Few people learn anything that is worth learning easily. 

54. The hardship is that in these times one can neither speak 

of kings or queens without suspicion of politics or per- 
sonalities. 

55. It is not necessary in such conversation, to accurately 

define the meaning of everything that is said. 

56. Climbing to the top of the hill, the Atlantic ocean was 

seen. 



CHAPTEE XXX 

THE SENTENCE — SYNTHESIS AND VARIETY. 

Synthesis 1 is placing parts together so as to form a 
whole. It is therefore the opposite of analysis. Thus, 
suppose a sentence to have been resolved as follows: 

(1) I was a child. 

(2) Only five years. 

(3) Goldsmith took me on his knee. 

(4) It was evening. 

(5) He was drinking coffee. 

(6) My father was drinking coffee. 

(7) Goldsmith began to play with me. 

(8) This was an amiable act. 

(9) I returned it with ingratitude. 

(10) It was the ingratitude of a peevish brat. 

(11) I gave him a slap. 

(12) I slapped him on the face hard. 

In weaving together these detached elements we have to 
consider how they are related in thought or idea, so as to 
be able to arrange them in proper order and to use proper 
connectives. The main thought, for instance, might 
appear to be (3); (2) an attribute of the predicate in (1); 
(1), (2), and (4) temporal circumstances of the predicate in 
(3); (3) enlarged by (5), (6), and (7); (9) opposed to (8); 
(10) an attribute of ^ingratitude^ in (9); (11) and (12) 
modal circumstances of ^returned' in (9); and so on. 

^ Greek syn, together, and thesis, placing. 

201 



^02 LESSORS IK ENGLISH GEAMMAE. 

They may be combined into a simple, a complex, or a 
compound sentence: 

(1) One evening, Goldsmith, drinking coffee with my father, 

took me (a child of five years) on his knee, and began to 
play with me — a very amiable act, but returned with 
the ingratitude of a peevish brat by a smart slap on the 
face. 

(2) When I was only five years old. Goldsmith took me on his 

knee one evening, while he was drinking coffee with my 
father, and began to play with me, which amiable act I 
returned with the ingratitude of a peevish brat by giving 
him a smart slap on the face. 

(3) When I was only five years old, Goldsmith, kindly taking 

me on his knee one evening as he was drinking coffee 
with my father, began to play with me ; and this amiable 
act I returned with the ingratitude of a peevish brat by 
giving him a smart slap on the face. 

(4) I was only five years old, when Goldsmith took me on his 

knee one evening, while he was drinking coffee with my 
father, and began to play with ine. This amiable act I 
[or. This was an amiable act, but I] returned [it] with the 
ingratitude of a peevish child by giving him a smart 
slap on the face. 

An important source of pleasure in expression, as in 
dress, music, and scenery, is variety. A sentence may be 
varied — 

(1) By changing an active verb into its passive form, or vice 

versa; as, ' A struck B ' = ' B was struck by A.' 

(2) By changing a participle noun into a root-infinitive, or 

vice versa; as, ' I like walking ' = ' I like to walk.' 

(3) By changing one kind of phrase into another; as, 'very 

neatly' = 'with great neatness.' 

(4) By changing the verb into the corresponding noun; as, 

' Columbus who discovered America ' = ' Columbus, the 
discoverer of America.' 



THE SEl^rtEKCE — SYNTHESIS AKD YAHlETT. 203 

(5) By contracting clauses into words and phrases : ' the man 

who catches rats' = 'the rat catcher.' 'When Caesar, 
had conquered Gaul, he sailed for Britain ' = ' Caesar 
having conquered Gaul, sailed for Britain.' 'Milton, 
who was a great epic poet, died in 1674' = 'Milton, the 
great epic poet, died in 1674.' 'If it does not rain this 
week the crops will be light ' = ' Without rain this 
week the crops will be light.' 

(6) By expanding words and phrases into clauses : ' They have 

nothing to wear ' = * They have nothing that they can 
wear.' ' Writing carefully, you will learn to write well ' 
= ' If you write carefully, you will learn to write well.' 
'Troy taken by the Greeks, --Eneas came into Italy' = 
After Troy had been taken by the Greeks, ^neas came 
into Italy.' 

(7) By changing from the declarative to the exclamative or 

the interrogative form, or vice versa: ' The child sleeps 
very quietly ' = ' How quietly the child sleeps ! ' ' The 
hardest task in the world is to think ' = ' Is it not the 
hardest task in the world to think ? ' 

(8) By changing from the usual to the inverted order, and vice 

versa: ' The breath of morn is sweet ' = ' Sweet is the 
breath of morn.' 'In a poor and narrow street dwelt a 
little sickly orphan ' = ' A little sickly orphan dwelt in 
a poor and narrow street.' 

(9) By changing from the direct form to the indirect, and vice 

versa: Bion said, 'Know thyself = 'Bion said that we 
should know ourselves.' 'A told B not to trouble him- 
self — ' A said to B, " Do not trouble yourself." ' 
(10) By the substitution of Synonyms, or words having nearly 
or exactly the same meaning : ' xit Oxford, Johnson 
lived [dwelt] about three years. He was indigent [poor] 
even to raggedness ; and his /ooA; [appearance] ^rovoAred! 
[excited] a mirth and a compassion [pity] which were 
equally insufferaUe [intolerable] to his haughty temper 
[spirit].' 



^04 LESSONS IK EKOLISH GRAMMAE. 

EXEBCISES. 

1. Resolte the following story into detached elemelits: 

It was New Year's Eve, and a cold, snowy evening. A poor 
little girl walked along the street, numb with cold. She 
carried in her hand a basketful of matches. These she had 
been trying all day to sell, but in vain ; no one had bought 
a single box. The snow fell fast upon her pretty yellow hair 
and her bare neck, but she did not mind that. She looked 
sadly at the bright lights which shone from every window 
as she passed along. She could smell the nice roast goose, 
and she longed to taste it. 

Wearied and faint, she laid herself down in a corner of the street, 
and drew her little legs under her to keep herself warm. She 
could not go home, for her father would scold her for not 
having sold any matches. Even if she were there, she would 
still be cold, for the house was but poorly furnished, and the 
wind whistled through many a chink in the roof and walls. 
She thought she would try and warm her cold fingers by 
lighting one of the matches. She drew one out, struck it 
against the wall, and presently a bright clear flame streamed 
from it, as from a lighted candle. The little girl looked at 
the flame, and she saw before her a fine supper tidily laid out, 
and a pretty iron stove with a nice fire in it! She stretched 
out her feet to warm them, when lo! the match went out. 
In a moment the feast and the fire vanished. There she sat 
in the cold night, with the burnt match in her hand. 

2. Make a simple sentence out of each of the following groups: 

(1) The sun shines. 

The sun warms the earth. 

(2) Peter had made the pilgrimage. 

Peter was commonly called the Hermit. 
Peter was a native of Amiens. 
The pilgrimage was to Jerusalem, 

(3) Tyndale printed the first edition of the New Testament in 

English. 



THE SEKTEI^'CE — STl^THESIS Al^D VAEIETY. 205 

Tyndale was an accomplislied linguist. 

He had conceived the design of translating the Scriptures. 

The translation was printed at Antwerp. 

The date was the year 1526. 

(3) Margaret fled. 

She was the consort of Henry the Sixth. 

She fled after a defeat in one of the wars. 

The wars were between the houses of York and Lancaster. 

She fled with her son. 

She fled into a forest. 

(4) The Nile rises in great lake. 
It runs north. 

Its source is two thousand miles from Alexandria. 

It receives two branches only. 

It runs through an alluvial valley. 

Its course through the valley is 1,500 miles. 

It flows into the Mediterranean. 

(5) There was a pious Brahmin. 
He made a vow. 

He vowed that he would sacrifice a sheep. 
He would do this on a certain day. 
On the appointed morning he went forth. 
He went to buy one. 

(6) The child was delicate. 
She was pale. 

She was prematurely wise. 

She was complaining on a hot morning. 

Her complaint was about the poor dew-drops. 

The dew-drops had been too hastily snatched away. 

They were not allowed to glitter on the flowers. 

There were other happier dew-drops. 

Some dew-drops live the whole night through. 

They sparkle in the moonlight. 

They sparkle through the morning. 

They sparkle till noonday. 



306 LESSOIS^S IN El^GLISH GEAMMAK. 

3. Weave (5) and (6), and each of the following, into complex sentences : 

(1) The Polar bear will live on vegetable diet. 
This was proved in the case of two. 

They lived and thrived for years in the French menageries. 
They were not allowed to touch animal food. 

(2) Portia was the daughter of Cato. 

Her husband had been conquered and slain at Philippi. 

She heard of it. 

She called for a sword. 

She wished to kill herself. 

(3) The great temple of the Arabs was the Caaba. 
The Caaba was in Mecca. 

In the walls of it was fixed a black stone. 
Tradition said this stone was a petrified angel. 
It was once pure white. 
It was soon blackened by the kisses of sinners. 

(4) Alfred was reduced to extremity by the Danes. 

The Danes were spreading devastation all over England. 

He was obliged to relinquish the ensigns of his dignity. 

He was obliged to dismiss his servants. 

He was obliged to fl.ee. 

He fled in the meanest disguise. 

He fled from the pursuit and fury of his enemies. 

4. Combine the following into compound sentences: 

(1) Bunyan struck at the hobgoblins. 
He pushed them from him. 
They were ever at his side. 

(2) Gin drinking is a great vice in England. 
Wretchedness is a greater vice. 

Dirt is a greater vice. 

(3) Two friends promised to visit me. 
One of them was on his way. 

It rained very heavily. 
He turned back. 

(4) There was a wild pigeon. 

She had built her nest on a high tree. 



THE SEKTEKCE — SYNTHESIS Ai^D VAEIETT. 207 

There she hatched her eggs. 

A fox always came. 

He came as soon as her young ones were fledged. 

He threatened that he would climb up. 

He threatened that he would devour her. 

Also her young. 

Unless she gave him the latter of her own accord. 

5. "Weave the following facts into well arranged sentences: 

(1) The fox thirsty ; comes to a well ; while drinking falls in ; 

drinks his fill ; unable to get out. A goat comes to the 
mouth ; looks down ; asks if the water is good ; the fox 
entices the goat to come down ; the goat leaps into the 
well, and drinks ; can not leap up again ; the fox asks him 
to set his fore-feet against the wall ; gets up on his horns, 
and springs out of the well ; declines to help the goat to 
get out ; taunts him with having more beard than brains. 

(2) In Altai Mountains, bears are numerous; a hunter and 

another man go in quest of one ; come upon fresh tracks ; 
a loud growl; a bear springs from a thicket thirty-five 
paces off ; the hunter fires ; the bear, wounded, makes a 
charge; strikes down the hunter; the other man runs 
off; reports the encounter. A party from the gold mine 
sets out next morning; the grass shows that the man 
had been dragged away; they follow the track; find the 
man, mangled and insensible, but living; he is carried 
with care to the hospital at the mines ; carefully tended ; 
remains unconscious for two months ; on getting better 
asks about the bear ; after a while he is missed and not 
to be found; the children had seen him go away with an 
axe and a rifle; in about a week he returns with the 
skin of a huge black bear; he had killed the bear. 

(3) A great irregular rock; connected with Spain by a low 

isthmus of sand; on the other three sidesthe sea. Three 
miles long; half a mile broad; rises to 1,430 feet; seen 
from a distance, bold and outstanding, but harmless; 
when examined, seen to be dangerous; tunnels inside 



208 LESSONS IK ENGLISH GKAMMAE. 

the rock, with holes out here and there for guns; at 
corners, an excavated hall, with guns all around; the 
rock, where not perpendicular, begirt by a wall and 
moat; the ground, at its base, undermined; fifty mil- 
lions spent defending it; kept at a cost of £200,000 a 
year. The town on the western slope; mostly yellow 
barracks ; streets narrow and crooked ; population 15,000 ; 
mixed multitude — soldiers, Spanish ladies, Barbary 
Jews, Highlanders, Moors, Turks, Spanish peasants, 
English governesses, and children ; donkeys with barrels 
of rain water, mules, Spanish horses ; medley of sounds 
— asses, mules, wagons, cars, bag-pipes, bugles, bands, 
bells, sentinels, jangUng of bargain-makers. 

(4) There is a large nerve. It runs from the skull through the 

back-bone. It is called the spinal marrow. From every 
part of it nerves branch off in every direction again and 
again. They cover the body like fine net-work. 

(5) The mischievous little boy sat upon my knees. It was on 

Christmas morning. He was holding fast his little 
stockings. They were stuffed as full as full can be. He 
was listening attentively to me. His face was demure. 
It was mild. I then told him something. It was that 
old Santa Claus does not love naughty children. Santa 
Glaus fills stockings with Christmas presents. 

(6) A great tree used to shelter the quiet little Dutch inn of 

yore. Instead of this, there now was reared a pole. 
The pole was tall and naked. It had something on the 
top that looked like a red nightcap. A flag was flutter- 
ing from it. On the flag was a singular assemblage of 
stars and stripes. All this was strange and incompre- 
hensible. Remembered the tavern sign. Recognized on 
this the face of King George. Even this was singularly 
changed. Red coat changed for one of blue and buff. 
Sword in the hand instead of a sceptre. Head decorated 
with a cocked hat. Underneath was painted ' General 
Washington.' A crowd of folks about the door. This 
was usual. But none that Rip knew. 



THE SEi^^TEl^CE — SYI^f THESIS AKD VAKIETY. 309 

6. Expand these simple sentences into complex ones : 

(1) His guilt or innocence is still uncertain. 

(2) Wealthy men should give liberally. 

(3) With patience he might have succeeded. 

(4) He believed his health to be improving. 

(5) The manner of his escape is a mystery. 

(6) He came upon me unawares. 

(7) Fish, having no lungs, have no voice. 

7. Contract the following sentences into simple ones: 

(1) They will call before they leave the city. 

(2) She stoops that she may conquer. 

(3) He grew rich, because he attended to his business. 

(4) My vengeance is awake, and she is a falcon that sleepeth 

not till she has been gorged. 

(5) Socrates proved that virtue is its own reward. 

(6) It is generally believed that the soul is immortal. 

(7) The crime was great and the punishment should be severe. 

(8) The premises were admitted, and the conclusion followed. 

(9) The infantry advanced, but the cavalry remained in the 

rear. 
(10) A man is to be pitied if he does not care for music. 

8. Change from the declarative to the interrogative or the exclama- 

tive, and note the effect : 

(1) The Judge of all the earth will do right. 

(2) They lash us with their tongues. 

(3) You can not put your hand in the fire without being burned. 

(4) The scenes of my childhood are dear to my heart. 

(5) The waves care nothing for the name of king. 

(6) The moonlight sleeps very sweetly on this bank. 

(7) The stars are innumerable. 

(8) Sleep is very wonderful. 

9. Change from the usual to the inverted order, and explain the 

effect : 

(1) The groves are sweet. 

(2) The fields are verclant. 



210 LESSORS IN EI^GLISH GEAMMAR. 

(3) The powerful king of day comes yonder. 

(4) The sleep of the dead is deep. 

(5) No positive misery can be while hope remains. 

(6) A straw will furnish the occasion when people are deterr 

mined to quarrel. 

(7) I knew very well that he could do it. 

(8) Nothing is mean or debasing in rural occupations. 

(9) He frowned ever and anon. 

(10) The messenger divine comes with a slow and noiseless 
footstep. 

10. Change to the usual order : 

(1) All in a moment through the gloom were seen 
Ten thousand banners rise into the air 

With orient colors waving. 

(2) Into this wild abyss the wary Fiend 

Stood on the brink of Hell and looked awhile, 
Pondering his voyage. 

(3) Among the hills of Athol he was born, 
Where, on a small hereditary farm, 

An unproductive slip of rugged ground. 

His parents, with their numerous offspring, dwelt. 

(4) Once in that great town below us. 

In a poor and narrow street, 
Dwelt a little sickly orphan ; 

Gentle aid, or pity sweet, 
Nefer in life's rugged pathway 

Guided his poor tottering feet. 

(5) Hope, like the glimmering taper's light. 

Adorns and cheers the way ; 
And still as darker grows the night. 
Emits a brighter ray. 

(6) When woods in early green were dressed. 
And from the chambers of the west. 
The warmer breezes, traveling out, 
Breathed the new scent of flowers about. 
My truant steps from home would stray, 
Upon its grassy side to play. 



THE SEi^TEKCE — SYNTHESIS AND VAKIETY. 211 

(7) But northward far, with purer blaze, 
On Ochil mountains fall the rays, 
And as each heathy top they kissed 
It gleamed a purple amethyst. 
Yonder the shores of Fife you saw ; 
Here Preston-bay and Berwick Law ; 

And broad between them rolled 
The gallant Frith the eye might note, 
Whose islands on its bosom float 

Like emeralds chased in gold. 

(8) Then the companions of his fall, o'whelmed 
With floods and whirlwinds of tempestuous fire. 
He soon discerns ; and weltering by his side, 
One next himself in power, and next in crime. 

Long after known in Palestine and named Beelzebub. 

11. Change the order in as many ways as possible without changing 
the construction: 

(1) Conscience remonstrates while we are doing wrong. ' 

(2) So far as I can judge, the book is well written. 

(3) Between passion and lying there is little difference. 

(4) I had long before repented my roving course of life, but I 

could not free my mind from the love of travel. 

(5) I found the following fragment in looking over the papers 

of an acquaintance. 

(6) Pitt was in the army for a few months in time of peace. 

(7) He was undoubtedly a great man. 

(8) Two or three faults of style occur to me in looking over 

some former compositions. 

(9) In the way of writing, no great thing was ever, or will ever 

be, done with ease. 

12. Change from the direct to the indirect form: 

As a wolf was lapping at the head brook, he spied a stray lamb 
paddling, at some distance down the stream. Having made 
up his mind to seize her, he bethought himself how he might 
justify his violence, ' Villain ! ' said he, running up to her, 



212 LESSONS IK ENGLISH GEAMMAR. 

*how dare you muddy the water that I am drinking?' 
'Indeed,' said the lamb, humbly, 'I do not see howl can 
disturb the water, since it runs from you to me, not from me 
to you.' ' Be that as it may,' replied the wolf, ' it was but a 
year ago that you called me many ill names. ' * 0, sir ! ' said 
the lamb, trembling, 'a year ago I was not born.' 'Well,' 
replied the wolf, ' if it was not you, it was your father, and 
that is all the same ; but it is no use trying to argue me out 
of my supper'; and without another word he fell upon the 
poor helpless lamb and tore her to pieces. 

13. Change from the indirect to the direct: 

When Pyrrhus had shown the utmost fondness for his expedi- 
tion against the Romans, Cyneas, his chief minister, asked 
him what he proposed to himself by the war. Pyrrhus said 
that he meant to conquer the Romans and reduce all Italy to 
his obedience. Cyneas asked what then. Pyrrhus said that 
he would pass over into Sicily and that then all the Sicilians 
must be their subjects. Cyneas asked what his Majesty 
intended next. The king replied that he meant to conquer 
Carthage and make himself master of all Africa. Then the 
minister asked what was to be the end of all his expeditions; 
and the king said that for the rest of their lives they would 
sit down to good wine. Cyneas then asked if they could 
have better than they then had before them, or if they had 
not already as much as they could drink. 

14. Weave the following facts into sentences of good length, and 

represent the lion and mouse as engaged in dialogue: 
The lion sleeping in a forest; mouse running over his nose 
awakes him ; the lion lifts his mighty paw to kill the mouse ; 
the mouse pleads for its life ; the lion spares it ; the mouse 
thanks the lion, and hopes to be of use to him some day ; the 
lion smiles at the idea. Some time after the lion, while 
roaming in the forest, is caught in a net ; can not get out ; 
his roar fills the forest; the mouse comes to his assistance; 
gnaws through the cords of the net; sets the lion free; 
thanks the mouse, and is glad that he had spared its life, 
jVIorah 



r 



THE SENTENCE — SYNTHESIS AND VARIETY. 213 

15. Without changing the sense, vary the form by contraction, 
expansion, transposition, substitution of synonyms, etc. : 
A hare, very proud of her quickness in running, once ran a 
race with a tortoise. In a moment the hare got before her 
rival, who, with his heavy shell on his back, could but move 
at a very slow pace. ' Ha ! ha ! ' laughed the hare, as she 
stopped half way to glance back at the tortoise crawling on 
far behind ; ' if you don't ply your short legs a little faster, 
my friend, I'll be half over the country before you reach the 
end of the field.' The tortoise answered not, but toiled on. 
'Really,' said the saucy hare, ' if I were to hop on three legs, 
I should get on much faster than you do! I think that I'll 
take a short nap. If you were but a yard from the goal, I 
should overtake you with a few bounds.' So the hare lay 
down on the grass, and soon fell fast asleep. She heard not 
the little feet of the tortoise, as he came creeping up to the 
place ; she saw him not as he went steadily on, never stop- 
ping to look behind him. Presently the hare awoke, and 
sprang up, ready to dart on like the wind. ' Where is the 
tortoise ? ' cried she. ' Here, ' answered a voice from the end 
of the field; ' slow and steady has won the race.' 



OHAPTEE XXXI. 

THE SENTENCE — CAPITALIZATION. 

One of the helps to clear expression is the use of differ- 
ently sized letters. Thus, * lord ' in its general sense 
denotes men of authority and power, and, when so used, it 
is begun with a small letter ; in its particular application, 
to God or a person, as ' Lord Bacon, ^ it is begun with a 
larger letter, called a capital. ^ Similarly, if we wish to 
combine ' sea ^ and ^ dead ^ — the one a common name and 
the other a common attribute — and to designate by the 
combination a single object, this peculiar use is rendered 
visible by initial capitals: *^Dead Sea.^ ^ Thou Ms capital- 
ized below to show its reference to the Deity: 

Thou whose love can ne'er forget its offspring man ! 

The presence of the antecedent, however, renders such 
capitalization quite unnecessary, since the reference is per- 
fectly clear without it: 

These are thy glorious works, Parent of Good, 

Almighty ! thine this universal frame, 

Thus wondrous fair : thyself how wondrous then I 

We write '^the constitution of the world,' but ^the Con- 
stitution of the United States'; ^the reformation of char- 
acter,' but *^the Eeformation of Luther'; ^a revolution in 
politics,' but 'the Eevolution of 1776'; 'democratic 

^ Latin caput, head. Large letters are so named because they are usually 
placed at the heads of words or sentences. 

214 



THE SEKTEKCE — CAPITALIZATION. 215 

principles/ but ' the principles of the Democratic party/ 
The foundation of the difference is, that the use of a ivord 
as a proper name requires an initial capital. It is for this 
reason that the princijDal words in the titles of books, 
which are really ^names of individual objects, are capi- 
talized. 

If the writer attaches peculiar weight to a word, he 
may express the fact to the reader's eye by capitalizing 
either all the letters or the initial one. Thus, when a 
word is being defined, it is not unusual to commence it 
with a capital. Who has not observed how customary it is, 
in advertisements, to begin with capitals the names of the 
leading objects to which it is desired to draw attention? 

Though not for the sake of emphasis, yet still to assist 
the reader^s understanding, the beginnings of sentences, 
while marked by certain ^om^s or stops, are also capitalized; 
and when one sentence is contained in another as a quota- 
tion, without change of form or introductory connective, 
the initial capital is retained: 

(1) Remember the maxim, ' Honesty is the best policy.' 

(2) Remember that 'honesty is the best policy.' 

■ These illustrations suggest that every rule of capitaliza- 
tion derives its value from this principle, — that the design 
of capitals is to exhibit to the eye the idea; consequently, 
that their different uses are mainly reducible to two, — the 
indication of proper names, and the indication of emphasis. 

It follows, moreover, from the essential office of capi- 
tals — to bring out the meaning of a sentence — that 
something must be allowed to taste. Within reasonable 
limits, the usage of the same or of different writers may 
properly vary, as in the following: 



216 LESSONS IK ElfGLISH GRAMMAE. 

The cane-brakes of the state of Louisiana. — Bancroft, 

The union of the States. — Everett. 

Used in Louisiana and some neighboring states. — Worcester. 

The States of Italy. — Macaulay. 

In the service of a single state. — Ibid. 

For the Bar or the pulpit. — Mandeville. 

He is a member of the bar. — Worcester. 

The general practice is to begin with capitals: 

1 . Every sentence. 

2. Every line of poetry. 

3. Every direct quotation — one expressing a thought, 
and not introduced by a conjunction: 

{Direct.) The poet says, * Learn to labor and to wait.' 
{Indirect.) The poet says that we must * learn to labor and to 

wait. ' 
{Direct.) His question is 'Why do you not go?' 
{Indirect.) He desires to know why you do not go. 

4. Statements enumerated in a formal manner: 

To establish the similarity of two polygons, it must be proved : 
(1) That they are mutually equiangular. 
(3) That their corresponding sides are proportional. 

5. Illustrative examples (quotations, or assumed to be 
such), if sentences: 

(1) The distinction is that yea and nay are answers to ques- 

tions framed in the aflBrmative ; as, ' Will he go ? 

(2) When from sudden emotion wer give utterance to some 

abrupt, inverted, or elliptical expression, we are said to 
use an exclamation; as, 'bravo,' 'dreadful,' 'the fellow.' 

6. Proper names, hence also names of months and 
days, leading words in titles of books and essays, and all 
appellations of the Deity. 



THE SENTENCE — CAPITALIZATION. 217 

7. Proper adjectives, — adjectives derived from proper 
nouns. ]S[ot infrequently words so derived have lost their 
primary reference, like worn and faded coins. Such are 
usually written with small initials; as, ^damask/ from 
Damascus, and ''stentorian/ meaning ^loud/ from Stentor, 
a fabulous person noted for the strength of his lungs. 

8. Names of things vividly personified, when indi- 
vidual : 

Thou Sun, said I, fair light! 

And thou, enlightened Earth, so fresh and gay! 
Ye hills and dales, ye rivers, woods, and plains, 
And ye that live and move, fair creatures, tell. 
Tell, if you saw, how came I thus, how here? 

9. Titles of office, honor, or respect, when used in con- 
nection with the proj)er name or (as a rule) in direct 
address. 

10. Names of the cardinal points (^ north/ ^ south,' 
etc.), when these denote a district or a people, but not 
when expressing mere direction. 

1 1 . Finally, the pronoun / and the interjection 
should be capitals. 

Both and oh express emotion, but the former is cus- 
tomarily used before vocatives: 

Fortune, Fortune! all men call thee fickle. 

If the world be worth thy winning. 
Think, oh ! think, it worth enjoying. 

EXERCISES. 

Make the necessary corrections, giving the reasons : 

(1) We had much pleasure. (2) My name is pleasure. (3) 
The entrance into the garden of hope was by two gates; 



218 LESSOKS IN Ei^GLISH GRAMMAR. 

one of which was kept by reason, and the other by 
fancy. (4) The general assembly meets on the first 
monday in January. (5) Let not the snares of the 
world, Oh my Son, take away your heart from good. 
(6) Three cheers were given for the 'champion of the 
south.' (7) The bible says, 'children, obey your 
parents.' (8) She is gone to him that comforteth as a 
father comforteth. (9) The president lives in the white 
house. (10) These birds go South in Winter, but return 
in Spring or Summer. (11) At length the toleration 
act was sent down to the commons. (12) He flattered 
himself that the tories might be induced to make some 
concessions to the dissenters, on condition that the 
whigs would be lenient to the Jacobites. (13) See art's 
fair Empire o'er our shores advance. (14) Burke's 
'philosophical inquiry into the origin of our ideas of 
the sublime and beautiful,' and allison's 'essays on the 
nature and principles of taste,' are works of permanent 
value. (15) The reign of queen Anne is generally ad- 
mitted to have been the augustan age of English 
literature. (16) The norman conquest was the means 
of introducing chivalry and the feudal system into 
England. (17) The wars of the roses desolated britain 
between the years 1455 and 1485. (18) The work is 
admirably adapted to the use of schools. 



OHAPTEE XXXII. 

THE SENTENCE — PUNCTUATION. 

Sentences are made clear chiefly by a proper arrange- 
ment of words; but sometimes, in spoken language, by 
proper pauses, and in written language by proper punctua- 
tions. Marks used for this purpose are called, from their 
effect, stops; and from their appearance, points, the Latin 
for which is punctum. 

Thus — 

1. The troops landed and killed a hundred Indians. 

Here ' Indians ' has the appearance of being the common 
object of the two verbs. To restrict it to the second, a 
point must be inserted after the first: 

The troops landed, and killed a hundred Indians. 

It would be still better, however, to re-cast the sentence, 
changing the first member to ^ The troops, landing, killed/ 
etc., or ^ After the troops had landed.' 

2. A tree consists of four parts first leaves second branches 

third trunk fourth roots. 

Here the least degree of separation is after the ordinals, 
which have been introduced to make the enumeration more 
deliberate or formal; and hence these are cut off by com- 
mas, to show that they are not modifiers. The next higher 
degree is between the particulars enumerated; hence these 
require semi-colons. The highest is after ' parts,'' and must 
therefore be distinguished by a colon: 

219 



220 LESSOKS IK ENGLISH GEAMMAE. 

A tree consists of four parts : first, leaves ; second, branches ; 
third, trunk; fourth, roots. 

3. Said Keats, ' I feel the daisies growing over me.' 

The grammatical connection between the object and the 
verb is closer when the sentence assumes the form: 

'Keats said that he felt the daisies growing over him.' 
A formal reference to the quotation increases the separation: 

These are the words of the dying Keats : * I feel the daisies 
growing over me.' 

In the first form, the quotation is objective and direct; in 
the second it is objective and indirect ; and in the third it 
is nominative by apposition. Make the appositive inter- 
mediate between subject and verb, and the punctuation 
will vary accordingly: 

These words, 'I feel the daisies growing over me,' were 
spoken by the dying Keats. 

From these illustrations we learn that the' purpose of 
punctuation is to indicate to the eye the construction of 
the sentence: also, that punctuation is influenced by the 
sense, by position, and by the points required elsewhere. 

PERIOD. 

Place a period after (1) a declarative or an imperative 
sentence; (2) an abbreviation; (3) headings and sub-head- 
ings, significant alone; (4) Eoman letters used as numerals. 
The practice of (4), however, is losing favor. It is more 
tasteful and equally clear to omit the period; as, ^ Edward 
IV was a vigorous ruler. ^ 

INTERROGATION POINT. 

This point is used after complete questions, whether 
asked by the writer or directly quoted (a), (b) ; sometimes 



THE SENTENCE — PUNCTUATION. 221 

within curves^ to express doubt without formal denial (c); 
after elliptical questions having a common dependence (d) : 

(a) What can I do for you? 

(&) He asked, ' Why do you weep ? ' 

(c) He is the meanest ( ?) of mankind. 

(d) How shall a man obtain the kingdom of God? by impiety? 

by murder? by falsehood? by theft? 

EXCLAMATION POINT. 

This point is used after sentences and parts of sentences 
that are sufficiently emotional {a, 1), c); commonly after 
interjections {d, e, f)', sometimes to attract attention {g)\ 
within curves, to denote irony or contempt {li) : 

(a) How poor, how rich, how abject, how august, how com- 
plicate, how wonderful is man! 
(&) Here I stand for impeachment or trial! I dare accusation I 
(c) Those evening bells ! those evening bells ! 

How many a tale their music tells ! 
id) Yeho ! yeho ! through lanes, groves, and villages. 

(e) Ah ! there's a deathless name. 
(/) Ere I was old ? Ah, woeful ' ere ' ! 
ig) Selling off below cost ! ! 

(Ji) This scholar and statesman ( ! ) would have us think that 
the law should be repealed. 

COLON. 

A colon is put between the great divisions of a com- 
pound sentence, when minor divisions are marked by the 
semi-colon («); before an enumeration of particulars when 
the particulars themselves are separated by semi-colons 
{h)\ before a direct quotation formally introduced {c; but 
note d): 

(a) There seems to have been an Indian path ; for this was the 
ordinary route of the Mohawk and Oneida war-parties : 



222 LESSONS IK El^GLISH GRAMMAR. 

but the path was narrow, broken, full of gullies and 
pitfalls, crossed by streams, and, in one place, inter- 
rupted by a lake which they passed on rafts. 

(&) In the language of commerce, 'money 'has two meanings: 
'currency,' or the circulating medium; and, 'capital 
seeking investment,' especially investment on loan. 

(c) These are Bion's words : Know thyself. 

(d) These words, ' Know thyself, ' were spoken by Bion. 

SEMICOLON. 
A semicolon is ^ont between the great divisions of a 
sentence if the minor divisions require to be marked by 
commas (a, b); between co-ordinate members when a 
comma would not seem to give due weight to the thought 
(c); between serial clauses or phrases having a common 
dependence (d) ; often before ^ as ' preceding an illustrative 
example (e; but note/, g, h); before an informal enumera- 
tion of particulars, if the particulars themselves require to 
be separated by commas only (^) : 

(a) That the world is overrun with vice, can not be denied ; 
but vice, however predominant, has not yet gained 
unlimited dominion. 

(5) A great author . . . writes passionately because he feels 
keenly ; forcibly, because he conceives vividly. 

(c) We have carved a cross upon our altars ; but the smoke of 

our sacrifice goes up to Thor and Odin still. 

(d) As a traveler. Smith had roamed over France; had visited 

the shores of Egypt ; had returned to Italy ; and, pant- 
ing for glory, had sought the borders of Hungary, where 
had long existed a hereditary warfare with the followers 
of Mahomet. 

(e) ' Can ' signifies ability; as, ' I can read,' 

(/) Many words, as 'inquire,' 'enquire,' 'sceptic,' are differ- 
ently spelled in English, 



THE SENTENCE — PUKCTUATIOI^. 223 

{g) Many words are differently spelled in English: 'inquire, 
enquire'; 'jail, gaol'; ' sceptic, skeptic' 

(li) Some words are irregularly compared, as 'good,' 'better,' 
'best.' 

{%) There are three genders ; the masculine, the feminine, and 
the neuter. 

COMMA. 
The comma is used to mark independent elements {a; 
but note h)', inverted elements [c; but note d), appositional 
elements (e; but note/); elliptical elements {g)-, contrasted 
elements (7i); direct quotations^ if short and informal or 
if intermediate (i); the logical subject if very long, if end- 
ing in a verb, or if composed of a series of unconnected 
terms (/); short members of a compound sentence {Tc)-, 
parenthetical and intermediate elements [l, m). In gen- 
eral, use a comma whenever it serves to prevent obscurity 
[n). No comma, as a rule, is put between restrictive 
elements and that which they restrict (o; but note js?) : 

{a) Mark Anthony, here, take your Caesar's body. 

I think, regard him as you may, that he is a dangerous man. 

(&) I wish — oh! why should I not havp- wished? — that all ray 
fellow-men possessed the blessings of a benign civiliza- 
tion. Consider {and may the consideration sink deep 
into your hearts/) the fatal consequences of a wicked 
life. 

(c) Of all our senses, sight is the most perfect. 
If it rain, I will go. 

To the wise and good, old age is tranquil. 

[d) Her crystal lamp the evening star has lighted. 
In infancy the mind is peculiarly ductile. 

In the solemn stillness of the mind are formed the resolu- 
tions that decide our fate. 



224 LESSONS IN Eiq^GLISH GKAMMAE. 

(e) The^ twin sisters, piety and poetry, are wont to dwell 
together. 
A professed Catholic, he imprisoned the pope. He, a pro- 
fessed Catholic, imprisoned the pope. 
Noah Porter, LL. D. 

(/) The terms reason and instinct have been variously defined. 
I recommend the reading of good books as a source of 
improvement and delight, 
(g) The tendency of poetry is to refine, purify, and expand. 
Charity beareth, believeth, hopeth, all things. 
A wise man seeks to shine in himself; a fool, to outshine 
others. 
(h) False delicacy is affectation, not politeness. Prudence, as 

well as courage, is necessary to overcome obstacles. 
(^) It hurts a man's pride to say 'I do not know.' To say '7 

do not Jcnoiv ' hurts a man's pride. 
(j) Whatever is is right. To maintain a steady course amid 
all the adversities of life, marks a great mind. Intel- 
ligence, beauty, modesty, are the charms of woman. 

(k) There mountains rise, and circling oceans flow. 
(I) I dislike all misery, voluntary or involuntary. Man, who 
is horn of woman, is of few days. 
Behold the emblem of thy state in flowers, which bloom 
and die. 
(m) Benevolence, 07i whatever side we contemplate it, is a god- 
like virtue. 
{n) He who teaches, often learns. 
To each, honor is given. 

That is, there is a true way of expressing truth. The 

gleam of the ocean and vast prairies of verdure, were 

before us. 

(o) Ambition is the germ from which all growth of nobleness 

proceeds. 

There is no such partition in the spiritual world as you see 

in the material. 
He said that he would go. 



THE SENTEiiTCE — PUl^CTUATIOK. 325 

{p) Seneca says, ' There is a settled friendship between God 
and good men.' 
There are many dreams, fictions, or theories, which men 
substitute for truth. 

Eule {c) is not applicable if the extreme terms are closely 
connected, as in (c/); if the order of the entire sentence is 
inverted; or if a short inverted phrase can be read smoothly 
without obscurity. The objective complement in {p), 
though restrictive, is set off in the service of the eye. The 
relative clause, though restrictive, is preceded by a comma 
to show its equal reference to each of the three antecedents. 

DASH. 

A dash is used to indicate an unfinished construction 
(a); a witty transition (^); hesitation (c); with the comma, 
after a loose series of nominatives broken off and resumed 
in a new form {d)\ before what is repeated for effect (e); 
in preference to commas and curves, to enclose a parenthesis 
(/); as a thought-stroke (g); to show the omission of let- 
ters and figures (h): 

(a) Richter says, in the island of Sumatra there is a large 
fireily which people stick upon spits to illuminate the 
ways at night. . . . Great honor to the fireflies! 
But ! 

(&) She never slumbered in her pew — but when she shut her 

eyes, 
(c) I take — eh ! oh ! — as much exercise as I can, Madam Gout. 

{d) To pull down the false and to build up the true, and to 
uphold what there is of true in the old, — let this be our 
endeavor. 

(e) Never is virtue left without sympathy — sympathy dearer 
and tenderer for the misfortune that has tried it, and 
proved its fidelity. 



226 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GEAM3IAR. 

(/) In youth — somewhere between childhood and manhood — 
there is commonly a striking development of the 
imagination. 

{g) He suffered — but his pangs are o'er ; 

Enjoyed — but his delights are fled ; 
Had friends — his friends are now no more ; 
And foes — his foes are dead. 

(h) In the village of C lived a queer old woman. 

During the war period, 1861 — 5, gold rapidly advanced. 

CURVES. 
The curves are used to enclose independent elements 
that violently break the unity of the context (a); depend- 
ent elements, if desired to be read in a perceptible under- 
tone (b). Matter within the curves is punctuated as in any 
other position (c): 

(a) The labors of Sir William Jones (he was master of twenty- 
eight languages) were the wonder and admiration of his 
contemporaries. 

(6) Know then this truth (enough for man to know) : 

Virtue alone is happiness below. 
It behooves me to say that these three (who by the way, 

are all dead) possessed great ability. 
I devoted a third part of all my wealth (four cents) to this 

cause. 
I agree with the honorable gentleman (Mr. Allen) that it 
is very pleasing, 

(c) Perhaps (for who can guess the effects of chance ?) 

Here Hunt may box, or Mahomet may dance. 
If we exercise right principles (and we can not have them 
unless we exercise them), they must be perpetually on 
the increase. 

The curves are used very often, as throughout this 
work, to enclose figures, letters, and words, inserted for 
explanation or for reference. 



THE SEKTEI^CE — PUKCTUATIOK. 227 

Within the sentence, the curve supersedes both comma 
and period. Whatever point would be needed if the 
parenthesis were left out, must be retained and will be 
inserted after the second curve. 

BRACKETS. 

The brackets are used to enclose what one person puts 
into the writing of another (a); by lexicographers, to en- 
close references, derivations, pronunciations (b) : 

(a) Chelsea June 30 [1880] Omission. 

A variety of pleasing objects meet [meets] the eye. . . . 

Correction. 

Yours [the British] is a nation of unbounded resources. 
Explanation. 

(b) Elude [Latin eludo] v. t., to escape. 

Formerly they were used in dramatic compositions to 
enclose directions or observations not considered a part of 
the text. In this use, however, they have been almost 
superseded by the curves. 

QUOTATION MARKS. 

Quotation marks are used to enclose the identical 
language of another {a); Sb quotation included within 
another is distinguished by double points (b). The quota- 
tion retains its own punctuation (c) : 

(a) ' Leaves have their time to fall, 

And flowers to wither at the north wind's breath, 

And stars to set ; but all — 
Thou hast all seasons for thine own, Death.' 

(&) * Swift to the breach his comrades fly, — 
" Make way for liberty! " they cry. 
And through the Austrian phalanx dart, 
As rushed the spear through Arnold's heart.' 



228 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GEAMMAR. 

(c) He asked me, * Why do you weep?' 

Why did you not say at once, ' I can not go ' ? 

The interrogation points belongs, in the latter, to the en- 
tire sentence; in the former, only to the objective clause. 

On the ground of reason and taste, we have followed 
the English lead in preferring single to double points for 
primary quotation, i The latter (especially if frequent) 
give to the page a ragged and uncouth appearance; the 
first, as they are simpler, are less offensive; and as they 
attract less attention, answer better the purposes of thought. 

It should be remembered, also, that quotation marks 
are but one of several devices for distinguishing words that 
are quoted. Hence single terms, titles of books and 
periodicals, may be expressed in italic or capitals. 

i UNDERSCORE. 

The underscore is used to distinguish foreign words (a); 
usually names of newspapers, of magazines, and (less 
frequently) of books (b); often for emphasis (6'), — one 
underscore denoting what is emphatic, italics: two, what 
is more emphatic, small capitals; three, what is very 
emphatic, CAPITALS: 

(a) His heroes are always marked by an air distingue; his vile 
men are sure to be biases ... he does not simply enjoy 
his rest, he luxuriates in the dolce far niente and won- 
ders when we will manage to begin his magnum opus ! 

(h) The article appeared in the Atlantic Monthly. 

Have you read Hawthorne's Marble Faunf 
(c) Sweep away utterly all frothiness and falsehood from your 
heart ; struggle unweariedly to acquire what is possible 

* In books and other printed work, It is becoming customary to omit the 
quotation marks, as unnecessary, when an extract is given in a separate 
paragraph together with the author's name. 



THE SElj^TEl^CE — PUHGTtJATIOH. 529 

for evefy God-created Jtiaii, a free, open, humble soul; 
^peak not at all in any wise^ till you have somewhat to 
BpeaJc/ eare not for the reward of your speaking, but 
simply, and with undivided mind, for the truth of your 
speaking ! 

APOSTROPHE. 

The apostrophe is used to denote the omission of a 
letter or of letters (a); the omission of a figure or of 
figures (b); to distinguish the possessive case (c); to form 
certain plurals (d) : 

(a) 'Tis [it is] curious that we believe only as deep as we live. 
What o'' clock is it? 

Thou 'It yet survive the storm. 

(b) The spirit of ^76 animated them. 

(c) King'^s [= cyning-es\. 

(d) Cancel your x^s and make your fs better. 

HYPHEN. 

The hyphen is used to divide words into their con- 
stituent parts, either when it is desired to exhibit the 
parts, as ^re-ject-ed/ or when it is necessary to write a 
portion on the next line: 

Pyrrhus you tempt a danger high 
When you would steal from any li- 
Oness her cubs. 

The following rules, which cover most cases of such di- 
vision, may be of service: 

(1) Join consonants to the vowels whose sounds they modify ; 

as, ' epi-dem-ic,' 'an-i-mos-i-ty.' 

(2) Prefixes and suffixes form distinct syllables, when possible 

without misrepresenting the pronunciation; as, 'form- 
er,' 're-print,' 'dis-grace-ful.' 

(3) In the case of compounds, the divisions fall between the 

constituents; as, 'horse-man,' ' more-over.' 



230 LESSONS IK ENGLISH GEAMMAK. 

EXEKCISES. 

1. Explain the punctuation : 

(1) Never man spake like this man. 

(3) Homer was the greater genius ; Virgil the better artist. 

(3) There are threee modes, — the indicative, the potential, 

and the imperative. 

(4) There are three modes; the indicative, the potential, and 

the imperative. 

(5) There are three modes : first, the indicative ; second, the 

potential; and third, the imperative. 

(6) What's in a name ? 

(7) Know, then, this truth (enough for man to know), 
Virtue alone is happiness below. 

(8) Know, then, this truth (enough for man to know) : 
Virtue alone is happiness below. 

(9) Our task done, we went home. 

(10) We went home when our task was done. 

(11) Plato, thou reasonest well. 

(12) He was a good poet, but a bad man. 

(13) The poet Longfellow was beloved by children. 

(14) The streams of small pleasures fill the lake of happiness. 

(15) He who stands on etiquette merely, shows his own little- 

ness. 

(16) The old man said, 'All work and no play makes Jack a 

dull boy.' 

(17) These were the old man's words: 'All work and no play 

makes Jack a dull boy.' 

(18) What, confine me? 

(19) What! confine me? 

(20) Honor, wealth, duty, safety, are the leading motives of 

man. 

(21) Reputation, virtue, and happiness depend greatly on the 

choice of companions. 

(22) I am Alpha and Omega, the beginning and the end, the 

first and the last. 

(23) It is mind, after all, that does the work of the world. 



THE SENTEiq^CE — PUKCTUATION^. 331 

(24) I will explain the What are you laughing at? 

(25) We are all of us (who can deny it?) partial to our own 

failings. 

(26) Mrs. L was born in 18—. 

(27) Too many studies distracts [distract] the mind. 

(28) A boon from thee, 
Health, I crave. 

(29) Diamonds and rubies, pearls and emeralds, dazzled the eye. 

(30) Proverbs are short, pithy, homely sayings that embody the 

wisdom and experience of the million. 

(31) Hungary, as well as Spain, is noted for its wines, 

2. Distinguish between — 

(1) ' I Paul, have written it ' ; 
' I Paul have written it.' 

(2) ' You did not see him, then ? ' 
' You did not see him then ? ' 

(3) '0 shame! where is thy blush?' 

' Oh, shame ! where is thy blush ? ' 

(4) 'Why, did you not come to us in the beginning of the 

night ? ' 
'Why did you not come to us in the beginning of the 
night ? ' 

(5) ' The eye, that sees all things, sees not itself ' ; 
' The eye that sees all things, sees not itself. ' 

6^ 'Behold the emblem of thy state in flowers, which bloom 
and die'; 
' Behold the emblem of thy state in flowers which bloom 
and die.' 

(7) ' The earth is filled with labors, the works, of the dead ' ; 
' The earth is filled with labors, the works of the dead.' 

(8) ' His mind was profoundly thoughtful, and vigorous ' ; 
'His mind was profoundly thoughtful and vigorous.' 

(9) "Twas certain he could write, and cipher too'; 
"Twas certain he could write and cipher too.' 

(10) 'Glass-house' and 'glass house'; 'New- York Directory' 
and ' New York Directory ' ; ' lady's finger ' and ' lady's- 



232 



LESSONS IK ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



finger'; 'recreate' and 're-create'; 'reform' and 're- 
form ' ; ' many-colored birds ' and ' many colored birds ' ; 
* a horse racing ' and ' a horse-racing ' ; ' four-footed 
animals ' and ' four footed animals ' ; ' deep-tangled 
wildwood ' and ' deep tangled wild wood ' ; ' touch me 
not' and 'touch-me-not.' 

3. Divide into syllables: 

Never, oblivious, heretic, transacted, termination, nevertheless, 
highwayman, accent, similarity, consolidate, master, signifi- 
cant, official, pretty, sufficiently. 

4. Compose sentences embodying correctly the following abbre- 

viations : 
Mo. = Missouri. 
Mts. = mountains. 
Mr. = mister. 
Mrs. = mistress. 
No. = numero 

(number). 
Messrs. = messieurs 

(gentlemen). 
Supt. ■= superintendent. 
A. D. = anno Domini. 
A. B. = artium baccalaureus 

(bachelor of arts). 

A. M. = artium magister 

(master of arts). 
LLoD. = legum doctor 

(doctor of laws). 
Ph. D. = philosophiae doctor 

doctor of philosophy). 

B. C. = before Christ. 

C. 0. D.= collect on delivery. 

5. Punctuate and capitalize, giving reasons: 

if we had but a king said some noisy frogs in a pond we should 
bs peaceful and orderly as it is every one may do as he 
pleases and say what he likes and there is as much uproar in 



lb. 


= libra (pound). 


do. 


= ditto (the same). 


e.g. 


= exempli gratia 




(for sake of example). 


etc. 


= et cetera 




(and the rest). 


i. e. 


= id est 




(that is). 


p. 


= page. 


pp. 


= pages. 


vs. 


= versus (against). 


viz. 


= videlicit (namely). 


hhd. 


= hogshead. 


M. D. 


= medicinae doctor 




(doctor of medicine). 


D. D. 


= divinitatis doctor 




(doctor of divinity). 


M. C. 


= member of Congress. 


M. P. 


= member of Parliament. 



THE SEKTEN"CE — PUNCTUATION. 233 

our pond as if we were a set of noisy ducks instead of being 
quiet respectable frogs a king would soon set us to rights o that 
Jupiter would give us a king so they held an assembly and 
offered up a prayer to jupiter that he would give them a king 
scarcely were the words of their prayer out of their mouths 
when down came a big black monster from the sky splashing 
the water up like a fountain away swam the frogs in a fright 
Jupiter should not have sent us such a terrible monster cried 
they why could he not send us a decent quiet king who might 
keep us in order without frightening us out of our wits as for 
this tyrant if he terrifies us thus at his first coming what 
will he do when he is used to oppressing us 

but the big black monster took no notice of their terror there 
he lay silent and sullen and would not so much as move a 
limb astonished at his silence the frogs after their first fright 
began to wish that their new king would say or do some- 
thing so that at least they might be relieved from their 
suspense so they took out of prison a frog that had com- 
mitted murder and promised him free pardon if he would 
swim within three frogs leaps of the king shivering with 
terror the poor frog swam towards the king scarcely daring 
to hope that he might escape and expecting every moment 
that the huge monster would dart upon him with open jaws 
and swallow him up closer and closer he swam still the king 
floated silent motionless taking courage from this the frog 
thought he would awake his majesty by croaking he croaked 
but the king made no reply he swam closer and still closer 
and at last his suspicions being aroused he extended one of 
his legs and stroked the monster's face with it it was as he- 
had suspected the king was no king nothing but a big 
black log. 

immediately the whole tribe of frogs who had been watching 
from a distance lifted up their voices and began to abuse 
jupiter if he had wished to insult us cried they he could not 
have treated us more contemptuously we should not have 
minded a strong and somewhat fierce king even if he had 
swallowed up a few of us now and then any thing would be 



234 LESSORS !:»■ English grammar. 

better than this do nothing this king log why may not we 
have a king as the birds and the beasts have jupiter should 
not have treated us thus he might at least have sent us no 
king instead of thus insulting us we will pray to him no more 
until he sends us a real king so the frogs shut up all their 
temples and for a whole day would say no more prayers to 
Jupiter but at the end of the day there suddenly hopped 
down into the pond a monstrous stork to be their king he 
began by gobbling up a dozen of the noisiest frogs and 
ordered that no frog should croak in any part of the pond 
while he was asleep this pleased the rest who said now we 
shall have order it is worth while having a strong king that 
we may have peace and quiet but when they came swimming 
round him next morning to pay their respects and to ask him 
to judge their disputes he would not hear them but ate them 
up by scores quiet and noisy alike choosing the fattest so 
now the frogs saw they had made a mistake and they said 
if we were once rid of king stork we would not find fault 
with king log and indeed we could be content to have no king 
at all 



INDEX. 



Absolute, Nominative, 154. 

Adjective, defined, 19; as noun, 
28 ; species of, 56 ; inflection of, 
96; synopsis of, 127; govern- 
ment of, 180. 

Adverb, defined, 19; as noun, 28; 
as adjective, 29 ; as relative pro- 
noun, 47, 63 ; species of, 61 ; 
conjunctive, 63; inflection of, 
101 ; synopsis of, 127 ; derivation 
of, 139. 

Alphabet, 8. 

Analysis, 165. 

Apostrophe, 239. 

Apposition, 58, 145, 178. 

Article, definite, 56, 91 ; indefin- 
ite, 57. 

As, relative force of, 47; in com- 
parison, 72. 

Attribute, 145. 

Auxiliary, nature and species of, 
104. 

Be, inflectional forms of, 117. 
Brackets, 227. 
But, as relative, 47. 



Can, 118, 183. 

Capitalization, principles of, 214. 

Case, 84, 86, 176, 177. 

Clause, 36. 

Climax, 195. 

Colon, 12, 21. 

Comma, 223. 

Comparison, 96. 

Complement, 51. 



Compounds, 132. 

Concord, 175. 

Conjugation, 110. 

Conjunction, defined, 21 ; as ad- 
jective, 29 ; species of, 69 ; deri- 
vation of, 139 ; synopsis of, 128. 

Copula, 52, 143. 

Curves, 226. 

D 

Dash, 225. 

Declarative sentence, 12, 159. 

Declension, 87. 

Derivatives, 132, 

Do, uses of, 118. 

Mther — or, 194. 

Emphatic style, 106. 

English language, origin of, 1 ; 
changes in, 3; composite char- 
acter of, 3. 

Uss, as gender sign, 80. 

Exclamative sentence, 12, 161. 

Exclamation point, 221. 

Expression, methods of varying, 
201. 

O 

Gender, 78. 
Government, 175. 
Grammar, aim of, 4. 



H 



Have, 118. 
Hybrids, 133. 
Hyphen, 239. 



Imperative sentence, 12, 160. 



235 



236 



IKDEX. 



Independent elements, 154. 
Indirect object, 85, 177. 
Infinitive, species of, 103; tense 

forms of, 107; participial and 

root subject of, 176. 
Inflection, meaning of, 77 ; ancient 

and modern, 86; as related to 

word-making, 131. 
Interjection, defined, 22; species 

of, 75; synopsis of, 128. 
Interrogation point, 220. 
Interrogative sentence, 12, 160. 



Like, improper use of, 72. 

M 

May, 118, 183. 

Mode, 107. 

Modifiers, nature of, 19; double 
duty of some, 149 ; classification 
of, 150; restrictive and paren- 
thetical, 151 ; position of, 193. 

Must, 119, 183. 



N 



Nominative case, 84. 

Noun, defined, 17; used as adjec- 
tive, 28; proper, 40; common, 
40; collective, 41; verbal, 41; 
material, 42; abstract, 42; con- 
crete, 42; inflection of, 78; syn- 
opsis of, 125; derivation of, 138; 
adverbial, 148. 

Norman conquest, effect of, 2. 

Number, of noun, 81; in early 
English, 83 ; of verb, 105. 

Numerals, 57. 

o 

Object, direct and indirect, 85; 

adverbial, 148, 178. 
Onhj, 194. 
0, oh, 217, 

Or and nor, confusion of, 185. 
Order, usual, 191; inverted, 192. 
Orthoepy, 9. 



Orthograpny, 9 
Ought, 119. 



Parenthetical elements, 155. 

Parsing, meaning and method of, 
124; schemes for, 125; tabular, 
129. 

Participle, species of, 103; com- 
pound forms of, 107. 

Parts of speech, induction of, 16 ; 
defined, 22; method of telling 
the, 23; transformation of, 28; 
principle of classification of, 30 ; 
phrase equivalents of, 34; 
clause equivalents of, 36. 

Past tense, confusion of with past 
participle, 182. 

Period, 220. 

Person, of nouns, 93 ; verbs, 105. 

Personal pronouns, descent of, 90. 

Personification, 79. 

Phrase, 34. 

Pleonasm, 154. 

Position, emphatic, 196. 

Possessive case, 85, 176. 

Possessive pronouns, descent of, 
91. 

Potential mode, 107, 121. 

Predicate, defined, 12; may be 
what, 142; views respecting, 
143; how modified, 147. 

Prefixes, 122. 

Preposition, defined, 20; species 
of, 66 ; complementary, li 8, 
145 ; synopsis of, 128 ; derivation 
of, 1539; final, 196. 

Primitives, 132. 

Principal elements, 12, 142. 

Progressive verb-forms, 106. 

Pronoun, defined, 18; as adjective, 
29; value of, 44; personal, 45; 
demonstrative, relative, interrog- 
ative, indefinite, 45; reflexive, 
46; relative as connective, 47; 
compound relative, 48; Anglo- 
Saxon inflection of personal, 90; 
synopsis of, 125; government of, 
178. 

Punctuation, science of, 219. . 



i:n'dex. 



237 



Q 



Quotation, direct and indirect, 
marks of, 227. 

S 

Semicolon, 222. 

Sentence, defined, 11; classified, 
12; principal elements of, 12, 
142; subordinate elements of, 
147; independent elements of, 
154; classification of, 158; sim- 
ple, 158; complex, 158; com- 
pound, 159; declarative, 159; 
interrogative, 160; imperative, 
160; exclamative, 161; analysis 
of, 165; government and con- 
cord in, 175; capitalization of, 
214; punctuation of, 219. 

Shall and will, 183. 

Subject, 12; may be what, 142; 
how modified, 147; case of, 175. 

Subjunctive, a fading and useless 
distinction, 107. 

Subordination, kinds of, 149; de- 
grees of, 150. 

Substantive, defined, 36. 

Suffixes, 132. 

Synonyms, 203, (10). 

Syntax, principles of, 175. 

Synthesis, 201. 



Tense, 105. 



Tlian, 72. 

That, as relative, 179. 
The three first, 194. 
Transmutation, 28, 58. 



XJ 



Undersc0re, 228. 
V 

Verb, defined, 17; as adjective, 
29; complete and incomplete, 
51, 144; copulative, 52; transi- 
tive, 52; intransitive, 53; im- 
personal, 53; inflection of, 103; 
strong and weak, 110; principal 
parts of. 111 ; simple inflectional 
forms of, 116; composite, 117; 
synopsis of, 126; derivation of, 
138; concord of, 181. 

Verbal, defined, 18; as adjective, 
29 ; as noun, 41 ; species of, 103 ; 
synopsis of, 127. 

Verb-auxiliaries, origin of, 118; 
how combined, 119. 

Vocative, 84, 154. 

Voice, 108. 

Vowels, 5. 

W 

What, as relative, 48. 
Which, powers of, 48. 
Wlio, indefinite use of, 48. 
Will, 118. 
Words, formation of, 131. 



m 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 




